The Indian Journal of Soil Conservation is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published three times a year—April, August, and December—by the Indian Association of Soil and Water Conservationists. Focused on the study and promotion of soil and water conservation techniques, the journal provides a platform for research and discussions on sustainable land management, soil erosion control, and conservation practices. The journal is widely abstracted by renowned databases such as CAB, AGRIS, INSDOC, and ENVIS, ensuring its research reaches a global audience. With its ISSN numbers 0970-3349 (print) and 0976-1721 (online), the Indian Journal of Soil Conservation serves as a valuable resource for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers in the field of environmental conservation and natural resource management.
Indian Association of Soil and Water Conservationists
Combined Application of Biochar and Nitrogenous Fertilizers Influences Growth and Productivity of Rainy and Spring Seasons Maize
The use of biochar and other organic amendments not only reduces fertilizer dosage but also improves crop growth and water productivity. A field study was conducted in rainy or kharif season maize (2019) and spring maize (2020) with main-plots having BN₁ (biochar @ 7.5 t ha⁻¹ + N @ 75 kg ha⁻¹), BN₂ (biochar @ 7.5 t ha⁻¹ + N @ 150 kg ha⁻¹), FN₁ (farmyard manure @ 20 t ha⁻¹ + N @ 75 kg ha⁻¹), FN₂ (farmyard manure @ 20 t ha⁻¹ + N @ 150 kg ha⁻¹), N₁ (N @ 75 kg ha⁻¹) and N₂ (N @ 150 kg ha⁻¹) and sub-plots with two irrigations, viz., I₀.₆ (IW/CPE: 0.6) and I₀.₉ (IW/CPE: 0.9). Higher plant height (2.96 m), SPAD value (58.55), stover yield (23.89 t ha⁻¹), cob yield (8.14 t ha⁻¹) and grain yield (5.78 t ha⁻¹) were obtained under BN₂ treatment compared to other treatments. BN₂ increased grain yield by 22.7% and 28.5%, and water productivity by 21.6% and 27.6% in rainy season and spring season compared to N₂. The I₀.₆ treatment resulted in higher water productivity by 5.5% compared to I₀.₉ during the spring season, but grain yield was significantly higher under the I₀.₉ treatment. Therefore, BN₂ with I₀.₉ is a viable practice for achieving higher crop productivity.
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Evaluation of Different Biochar Sources on Growth, Yield and Soil Fertility of Okra and Brinjal in Inceptisol from Odisha : A Pot Study
Declining soil organic carbon and nutrient imbalances in Inceptisols of eastern India have reduced productivity of intensive vegetable systems under sole chemical fertilizer use. However, limited information exists on the comparative effectiveness of different biochar sources integrated with farmyard manure (FYM) and recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) for improving soil fertility and yield of okra and brinjal. In this context, a pot experiment was conducted during 2021–2022 at the ICAR–Indian Institute of Soil Science (IISS), Bhopal, India, to evaluate the effect of different biochar sources and application rates, alone and in combination with FYM and RDF on growth, yield, and soil fertility of okra and brinjal grown in an Inceptisol soil collected from Belpada, Odisha. The experiment was laid out in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with eleven treatments replicated four times, involving two biochar sources {crop residue biochar (CRB) of groundnut, mustard, and rice husk and mixed wood biochar (WCB) of Prosopis juliflora and coconut husk} applied at 0, 4, and 8 g kg⁻¹ soil, with and without FYM (5 g kg⁻¹ soil) and (RDF). Results revealed that integrated application of biochar, FYM, and RDF significantly (p < 0.05) improved plant height and yield of both the crops over the control (0) and fertilizer-alone treatments. The treatment crop residue biochar @ 8 g kg⁻¹ soil + FYM @ 5 g kg⁻¹ soil + RDF (F CRB M ) consistently recorded the highest yields of 1 8 5 okra (182.4 g pot-1) and brinjal (262.5 g pot-1), resulting in nearly two-fold higher fruit yield of okra and three- to four-fold higher fruit yield of brinjal compared to the control across both years. This treatment also improved N, P, and K uptake substantially, with N uptake increasing more than four fold in okra and over twofold in brinjal, accompanied by marked increases in P and K uptake across both crops. Biochar application moderated soil reaction, raising soil pH from near-neutral control levels (~7.26) to ~7.64, indicating its liming potential, while soil organic carbon (SOC), available P, and available K increased by 114%, 170%, and 27%, respectively, under integrated treatments. Unlike earlier studies focusing on single biochar sources or short-term responses, this study provides a comparative assessment of crop residue and mixed biomass biochars at graded rates under integrated application with FYM and RDF, highlighting their cumulative effects. The findings offer new insights into optimized biochar-based nutrient management strategies for sustaining vegetable productivity and soil fertility in Inceptisols. Although it is just a pot study but it concludes that biochar alone is insufficient, but its integration with FYM and RDF, particularly crop residue biochar at higher rates, is an effective and sustainable strategy for enhancing vegetable productivity and soil fertility in Inceptisol soils.
Green Manuring with Sesbania aculeata for Weed Suppression, Rice Productivity, and Soil Carbon Sequestration in Central India
Continuous monocropping coupled with suboptimal management practices accelerates soil degradation and exacerbates environmental stress. In this context, legume-based green manuring has emerged as a sustainable strategy for enhancing soil health, environmental quality, and crop productivity in rice-based systems. It was hypothesized that incorporation of 45-day-old Sesbania aculeata biomass (4.73-5.03 t ha-1) prior to rice transplanting would enhance rice productivity and profitability, suppress weed infestation, and promote soil carbon stabilization. A three-year field study (2014–2016) was conducted on large plots (4000 m² per field) comparing rice fields with and without S. aculeata incorporation. The results revealed that S. aculeata incorporation significantly (p < 0.05) reduced weed density and biomass (41.7-57.3% and 36.6-38.4%, respectively), while substantially increasing rice grain and straw yields (5.84-7.52 and 6.84-8.65 t ha-1, respectively). Furthermore, green manuring with S. aculeata improved soil physical properties, notably reducing bulk density (1.39 Mg m from 1.42), and significantly enhanced soil organic carbon (SOC) content (0.37% to 0.45%). Continuous incorporation over three years contributed appreciable carbon to the soil profile, resulting in higher soil carbon stocks than in the non-incorporated system. Incorporation of S. aculeata as green manure effectively suppresses weeds, enhances rice yield, improves soil health, increases carbon sequestration, and allows a reduction of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer by ~20 kg N ha⁻¹, thereby lowering production costs and mitigating potential environmental pollution.
Extent of Awareness, Utility and Constraints in Adoption of Site-Specific Land Resource Inventory Information in New Generation Watersheds
The Land Resource Inventory (LRI), a scientific farm-level planning tool introduced under Karnataka's Sujala-III watershed project, has low field adoption among farmers despite its strengths. This study examines awareness, dissemination, utility, and adoption barriers across 20 micro-watersheds using surveys of 900 farmers and focus groups with Project Implementing Agencies (PIAs). Findings show a steep drop from awareness to actual use, with only 22% of farmers knew about LRI, 20.2% received LRI cards, 11.4% had training, and only 6.56% used LRI information for crop or nutrient decisions. Just 2.89% had read their LRI card more than once, and only 5.89% remembered LRI details of their land. Major LRI adoption constraints include lack of awareness of site-specific information (70%), insufficient training, conservatism and illiteracy among watershed farmers. From the PIAs perspective, key challenges included difficulty in promoting adoption of site-specific crop suitability, securing acceptance of recommendations among farmers, and timing issues with LRI card delivery. Overall, low adoption stems from systemic institutional, logistical, and behavioral gaps, requiring farmer-focused dissemination, stronger extension links, integration of LRI with existing systems, and participatory planning to align scientific advice with local needs.
Comparative Effects of Crop Residue Mulches on Weed Dynamics, Soil Moisture, and Yields of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) Under Rainfed Conditions
In rainfed chickpea cultivation, soil moisture stress and severe weed infestation are major constraints limiting productivity, while open-field burning of crop residues poses serious environmental concerns. With this background, an experiment was conducted during the winter or Rabi season of 2022-23 at Agricultural Research Farm, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, to evaluate the effects of different crop residue mulches on weed dynamics, soil moisture conservation, growth, and yield of chickpea. The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design (RBD) with seven treatments and three replications. The treatments included: without mulch, dust mulch, paddy straw mulch @ 5 t ha-1, maize stover mulch @ 5 t ha-1, Leucaena twigs mulch @ 5 t ha-1, paddy straw mulch @ 2.5 t ha-1 + Leucaena twigs mulch @ 2.5 t ha-1, maize stover mulch @ 2.5 t ha-1 + Leucaena twigs mulch @ 2.5 t ha-1. Results revealed that the application of paddy straw mulch at 5 t ha-1 was the best treatment for reducing weed density and biomass at 60 and 90 DAS of chickpea. Although dust mulching recorded lower weed density and biomass at 30 DAS, it was ineffective during the subsequent crop growth period due to rapid flushes and proliferating weed germination. The maximum mid-season surface soil moisture (16.7%) was recorded under paddy straw mulch @ 5 t ha⁻¹ at 60 DAS, and it was found at par with paddy straw mulch @ 2.5 t ha-¹ + Leucaena twigs mulch @ 2.5 t ha-1 while the minimum was observed under no mulch treatment. Moreover, paddy straw mulch @ 2.5 t ha-1 + Leucaena twigs mulch @ 2.5 t ha-1 excelled over all other treatments in terms of growth, yield parameters, and yield. Hence, application of paddy straw mulch @ 2.5 t ha-1 + Leucaena twigs mulch @ 2.5 t ha-1 may be recommended for higher growth and yield of chickpea under rainfed conditions similar to the experimental site.
Hydrological Modeling for Environmental Flow Estimation under Data- Scarce Condition
Estimating environmental flows is crucial for mitigating anthropogenic impacts and restoring their ecological functions; however, such assessments remain challenging, particularly in data-scarce and regulated basins. This study addresses this gap by estimating environmental flows for the Sankh River (4,027.4 km²), a regulated and hydrologically data-limited tributary in eastern India, using an integrated Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT)– Global Environmental Flow Calculator (GEFC) modeling framework. Despite its widespread use, the SWAT-GEFC approach is limited in small- to medium-sized Indian basins, especially in ecologically sensitive and undermonitored rivers such as the Sankh. The SWAT model performed satisfactorily in simulating streamflow, as evidenced by the test statistics obtained during calibration and validation (NSE: 0.81 and 0.90; R²: 0.81 and 0.92; RSR: 0.44 and 0.32, respectively). To assess ecological flow requirements, the GEFC was used to derive environmental flow regimes through Flow Duration Curves (FDCs) and Environmental Management Classes (EMCs). Results indicate a systematic decline in Mean Annual Runoff (MAR) allocations from EMC “A” to “F”, with SWAT-simulated values (39.5 to 0.9%) closely matching with the observed trends (47.1 to 1%), thereby supporting the model robustness. Seasonal analysis identified December and January as the most flowstressed months, with a minimum ecological flow threshold of 5.72 m³ s⁻¹ required to sustain riverine health. The findings offer practical benchmarks for integrating environmental flows into reservoir management, regional water allocation, and policy planning, particularly within the framework of India's National Water Policy (2012). Integrating hydrological modeling with ecological considerations can lead to sustainable river management. Future research should integrate habitat simulation models and climate-change-driven flow scenarios to support resilient and adaptive environmental flow management.
Frequency Analysis of Five Days Antecedent Rainfall for Different Seasons for Kohima (Nagaland)
In the present study, daily rainfall data recorded at Kohima for 26 years (1997-2022) were collected. Data were grouped by seasonal rainfall: monsoon, pre–monsoon, and post-monsoon. The 5-day total antecedent rainfall prior to the storm was calculated for three seasons and fitted to various probability distribution functions. The distribution with the lowest χ2 value was declared the best fit function. Using the best fit probability distribution function, 05 days antecedent rainfall(mm) under different antecedent moisture conditions (AMCs) and seasons were calculated for different return periods. Only 15.56 % of the total number of 5 days of antecedent rainfall fall under AMC-II conditions. Therefore, of all recorded events, 60.05 per cent fall under AMC-I and 24.39 per cent under AMC-III, necessitating adjustment of the curve number from AMC-II to AMC-I or AMC-III, respectively, to reflect these proportions of cases. Results of the turning point test statistics fall within the 5% significance level for all seasons and AMC conditions, indicating that the data set could be considered random. Log normal and Normal probability distribution functions were found to be the best-fit probability distribution functions for AMC-I and AMC-III rainfall for the post-monsoon season, respectively. Extreme value-I probability distribution function was found to be the best fit for the pre-monsoon season rainfall of AMC-II and AMC-III, and the monsoon season rainfall of AMC-II. The log Pearson Type III probability distribution function was found to be the best fit for monsoon-season rainfall of AMC-I and for premonsoon- season rainfall of AMC-I. The gamma probability distribution function was found to be the best fit for post-monsoon season rainfall in AMC-II. Across all three seasons and AMCs, 5-day incident rainfall increased with increasing recurrence interval. The estimated values of 5-day antecedent rainfall (mm) under different AMCs and seasons at different recurrence intervals can be used to predict runoff in Kohima (Nagaland).
Continuous probability distribution function
Spatial Patterns of Soil Organic Carbon in South Delhi District : A Multi-Land Use Baseline Assessment
Soil organic carbon (SOC) is a fundamental component of soil health and plays a critical role in climate regulation and ecosystem functioning. In rapidly urbanizing regions, spatial variation in SOC reflects complex land use patterns, yet spatially explicit assessments across diverse urban land uses remain limited. This study characterized the spatial distribution of SOC and associated soil physicochemical properties across five major land-use and land-cover (LULC) types in South Delhi District, India. Soil samples were collected from 98 locations representing agriculture, forest, scrub forest, built-up, and wasteland areas during 2021 and 2022. At each location, samples were obtained from three depth intervals (0–10, 10–20, and 20–30 cm) and analyzed for SOC, bulk density, moisture content, pH, electrical conductivity, water holding capacity, porosity, and particle density. Spatial patterns of SOC were assessed using Empirical Bayesian Kriging (EBK). SOC concentrations varied significantly across LULC types, with forest soils highest (0.62–0.66% at 0–10 cm) and wasteland soils lowest (0.15–0.17% at 0–10 cm, dropping to 0.06–0.08% at 20–30 cm). Built-up areas had similar low levels. SOC decreased with depth across all land uses, with 60–70% in the surface layer. SOC correlated strongly with bulk density, porosity, and water retention. EBK mapping revealed SOC-rich zones in forests and depleted zones in urban and degraded lands, with good validation. This study sets a baseline for SOC in South Delhi, highlighting hotspots and depleted areas for conservation. The spatial patterns suggest stability over two years. Limitations include uneven sampling, short duration, and lack of vegetation and land management data. Future work should include long-term monitoring, vegetation, soil texture, and SOC fractionation to better understand carbon dynamics.
Landform - Based Soil Variability and Water Regime Implications in the KRP Dam Catchment, Tamil Nadu, India
Hydropedology studies soil and water processes across landscapes. This research characterized the soils in the Krishnagiri Reservoir Project (KRP) Dam catchment, Tamil Nadu, India, to identify pedological indicators of water regimes and the effects of land management. A (2020-2023) soil survey at a 1:10,000 scale provided data for the 12,483 ha catchment. Five soil series from various landforms were classified, and drainage classes were estimated based on soil features without direct hydrological monitoring. Soil properties varied by landform, from shallow (<50 cm) to deep (100- 150 cm), with drainage from well to poorly drained. Colors ranged from dark reddishbrown to black; textures ranged from loamy sand to clay. Structure ranged from massive to subangular blocky; pH from neutral to moderately alkaline (6.74-9.19), electrical conductivity from non-saline to slightly saline (0.04-1.64 dS m⁻¹), organic carbon from low to high (0.15-2.17%), and cation exchange capacity from 4.43 to 54.0 cmol (p⁺) kg⁻¹. The soil exchange complex held Ca > Mg > K > Na. Soil classes included Alfisols (NGH & MLD series - uplands), Inceptisols (STP & SDK series - lowlands), and Entisols (KLV series - lowlands). Soils with periodic saturation (KLV, STP, SDK) had higher clay, CEC, and nutrients than well-drained uplands (NGH, MLD). Correlation analysis (n=45) showed strong positive relationships between clay, CEC, and exchangeable bases, with sand negatively correlating. Upland soils exhibited erosion and nutrient loss with low water-holding capacity (5.44-7.99%). Lowland soils had higher available water (11.89-22.39%) but signs of drainage issues and salt buildup. This study provides a baseline for soil features in the KRP Dam catchment. Water regime inferences need validation via direct hydrological monitoring, including water table, soil moisture, and hydraulic testing. Conservation strategies for uplands (erosion, organic matter) and lowlands (drainage, salinity) should be field-tested before implementation. This baseline supports future integrated research for sustainable crop management in dam-affected regions.
Short-Term Effects of Solid Piggery Sludge Application on Soil Properties and Metal Accumulation In Rice and Maize under Humid Lowland Tropical Conditions in Papua New Guinea
The livestock industry in humid tropical regions is generating increasing amounts of piggery waste, necessitating sustainable solutions. Agricultural land application offers waste-to-resource potential, but concerns about heavy metal contamination and crop safety necessitate evaluation. This study examined short-term effects of solid piggery sludge (SPS) on soil properties and metal accumulation in rice and maize in Papua New Guinea over six months, with four SPS rates (0, 2.5, 5, and 10 t ha⁻¹) and five replicates. Soil samples were analyzed for physical, chemical, macronutrients, and heavy metals; plant tissues for metal content and bioaccumulation; and growth parameters were measured pre-reproduction. Data showed SPS increased soil organic carbon (121- 185% in control vs. 1,021-1,316% at 10 t ha⁻¹), organic matter, and water holding capacity; nitrogen rose from 1,200-1,450 to 2,100-2,300 mg kg⁻¹; macro- and micronutrient levels increased dose-dependently. Heavy metals like lead, cadmium, and chromium exceeded FAO limits at higher rates. Maize benefited from SPS, with height and dry matter up by 69-83% and 55-140%, respectively; rice showed growth inhibition at higher rates despite more tillers. Tissue metal levels were higher in rice; bioaccumulation factors often below 1.0, except for Co, Zn, and Mn at higher doses. Low SPS (≤2.5 t ha⁻¹) improved soil fertility while keeping metal levels near background; higher rates risk metal accumulation. Maize tolerated metals better than rice. Plants were harvested before grains fully matured, so actual grain safety is unknown. Six months limit long-term assessment of metal buildup and system sustainability. Results suggest 2.5 t ha⁻¹ as a tentative safe maximum, but multi-year studies are needed before commercial use.
Eco-Friendly Livelihood Interventions for Income Enhancement among Vulnerable Households in a Western Himalayan Village Cluster: A Participatory Action Research Study
Small rainfed hill farms in the Indian Himalayan Region face ecological fragility, resource depletion, and farmland abandonment, requiring alternative livelihoods for vulnerable communities. This study assesses the economic viability and socioecological impacts of low- cost livelihood interventions for marginalized households in Uttarakhand' s Jyoli village (2020-2022). Using participatory action research, we implemented six eco- friendly interventions i.e. protected cultivation, backyard poultry, beekeeping, vermi- composting, bio- briquetting, and green skilling—among 150 purposively selected households (Scheduled Caste, Below Poverty Line, COVIDaffected, women- headed) from a cluster with baseline mean income ` 13, 134/HH/year. Daily input- output registers, beneficiary surveys, and cost- benefit analyses quantified outcomes over 24 months. Non- beneficiary households (n = 153) provided contextual comparison. Of 150 intervention households, 62 (41. 3%) achieved income doubling to ` 28, 935/HH by September 2022, primarily through poultry (85 HH; 2, 700 birds; B:C 2. 13; ` 69,56,951 revenue despite 17% mortality, χ ² = 4. 8, p = 0. 03) and polyhouses (41 units; 26. 16 t ha-1 vegetable yield—16 × higher than open fields, p< 0. 001; B:C 2. 66, 95% CI: 2. 12–3. 20). Overall project investment of ` 61,4,612 generated ` 97,6,976 output (net ` 5, 15, 515; aggregate B:C 2. 12). Scale of adoption explained 95% of income variance (r = 0. 975, p< 0. 001), while per- household profitability explained 77% (r = 0. 878, p< 0. 001). Complementary activities—beekeeping (81 kg honey; 27–73% pollination- driven crop yield gains), vermi- composting (68 quintals), and green skilling (91% women participants)—enhanced nutrition security and women' s empowerment (73. 2% self- confidence, 70.7% economic gains). However, only 42.9% reported reduced migration. Integrated livelihood models combining poultry with polyhouse- beekeeping can boost income under favorable conditions (support, inputs, demand). Success rate of 41% indicates potential but scalability faces barriers: chick supply, subsidized feed (56. 6% costs), veterinary services, market access, climate risk management. The model' s focus on SC/BPL and ecological benefits (biodiversity, fewer forest fires, water harvesting) offers climate- resilient development paths, though sustainability beyond project are duration remains uncertain.
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Assessing Agronomic Risk under Altitudinal-Slope Variations in Eastern India: A Conceptual Synthesis of Soil-Water-Productivity Interactions
Topographic heterogeneity is a defining feature of the Eastern Region of India (ERI), where sharp gradients in altitude and slope exert strong control over soil formation processes, hydrological dynamics, vegetation distribution, and agricultural performance. There is an urgent need to synthesize multidisciplinary evidence to evaluate agronomic risks associated with altitudinal–slope variations across ERI's major landscape units—floodplains, piedmonts, undulating uplands, and hilly terrains. Steeper slopes and higher elevations consistently elevates risks due to enhanced runoff generation, severe soil erosion, rapid nutrient loss, reduced soil organic carbon (SOC), and diminished soil moisture retention, collectively heightening susceptibility to crop failure. In contrast, mid-altitude zones with higher vegetation cover tend to exhibit moderated erosion and improved soil stability, while lower elevations face complex risks driven by intensive cultivation, sedimentation, land-use transitions, and expanding urbanization. Comparable evidence from Himalayan and other terraincomplex regions reinforces these topography-driven degradation patterns, particularly regarding erosion rates, nutrient redistribution, and SOC variability. The terrain attributes fundamentally regulate soil physical, chemical, and biological properties, influencing micronutrient availability, infiltration capacity, SOC stocks, and vegetation structure—key determinants of agronomic suitability. With projected increases in rainfall intensity and monsoonal variability under climate change, these topographylinked risks are expected to intensify. Incorporating high-resolution terrain metrics into agronomic risk assessments can substantially strengthen land-use planning, soil conservation strategies, and climate-resilient agricultural management. Thus, there is urgent need for altitude- and slope-responsive interventions including erosion control, vegetative reinforcement, precision nutrient management, and landscape-specific conservation practices to safeguard soil health and ensure sustainable agricultural productivity in the highly diverse and vulnerable eastern region of India.
Geospatial Assessment of Temperate Fruit Sites for Sustainable Horticultural Diversification in Meghalaya
Meghalaya has significant potential for horticultural diversification, particularly for temperate fruit crops. This study evaluates site suitability for apple, pear, and peach cultivation in Meghalaya using geospatial techniques, with a specific focus on sustainable land use and soil conservation in a landscape prone to degradation. Key parameters considered include soil depth, drainage, texture, pH, organic matter, nutrient availability (P and K), climatic variables (temperature, rainfall, and chilling hours), and topographic variables (slope, elevation, and slope aspect). Suitable areas were classified into highly suitable (S1), moderately suitable (S2), marginally suitable (S3), and not suitable (N) zones using the FAO Land Evaluation Framework. The suitability model was validated against 785 ground-truth observations, yielding an overall accuracy of 90% and a Kappa coefficient of 0.86, confirming its predictive reliability. West Khasi Hills emerges as the district with the highest concentration of suitable land for all three crops, particularly in the blocks of Mawthadraishan, Nongstoin, and Mairang. A total of 64,485.92 hectares were identified as suitable for at least one crop, of which 24,259.52 hectares are highly suitable for all three simultaneously — representing the most promising zones for integrated orchard development and long-term soil stabilization. By providing a spatially explicit framework, this study supports evidence-based planning for nursery development, cold-chain infrastructure, marketing linkages, and climate-resilient horticultural diversification in Meghalaya.
Assessing Feasible Weed Management Options in Maize under Organic Farming System of Eastern Himalayas
Weed management under organic farming relies heavily on manual and mechanical methods, which are labour-intensive and costly, particularly in the high-rainfall hill ecosystems of North Eastern India. A field experiment was conducted for three consecutive years (2015–2017) on a long-term organic field (under organic management since 2005–06) at mid-altitude (950 m ASL) in Meghalaya to evaluate non-chemical weed management options for maize productivity, weed dynamics and soil health. Eight treatments were tested in a randomised block design, including hand weeding, mechanical weeding, soil solarization, mulching, stale seedbed preparation and maize–soybean intercropping. Among all treatments, two hand weedings at 20 and 45 days after sowing (DAS) recorded the lowest weed population (155.3/m²) and dry weight (75.3 g/m²) at 30 DAS. However, intercropping of maize with soybean (2:1) combined with one hand weeding at 45 DAS (T6) and stale seedbed + 25% reduced spacing + mulching with crop residues + one hand weeding at 45 DAS (T5) achieved significantly higher weed control efficiency at 60 DAS, the lowest weed indices (1.2 and 4.9%, respectively) and maize grain yields statistically at par with the weed-free check. T6 recorded the highest net returns (₹49,560/ha) and benefit–cost ratio (2.42), outperforming all other treatments, including the weed-free check, primarily due to lower weeding costs and the added benefit of biological nitrogen fixation by soybean. After three cropping cycles, T6 also recorded the highest soil organic carbon (22.3 g/kg), available nitrogen (272.5 kg/ha) and phosphorus (29.6 kg P₂O₅/ha), indicating concurrent improvement in soil health. Soil solarization performed poorly under the prevailing sub-32°C temperature regime of the region. Maize+soybean intercropping (2:1) with one hand weeding at 45 DAS is recommended as a practically viable, economically superior and soil health-enhancing weed management strategy for organic maize production in the North Eastern Hill Region of India.
Thematic Synthesis of Indigenous Technical Knowledge Relevant To Hill And Mountain Ecosystems: The Shivaliks of North India As A Representative Case
Indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) comprises time-tested practices refined by farmers through continuous experimentation and innovation. Despite being ecofriendly, cost-effective, and readily accessible, ITK remains underutilized in modern conservation programs. This paper presents a thematic synthesis of ITK practices in the Shivalik region of North India, based on 30 years of field experience across 4.2 million hectares in five northern states. Data were compiled through interactions with farmers and village elders, group discussions, field observations, case studies, and validation by extension personnel. The study documents ITK-based practices for land development (field bunding, terracing, fertility maintenance), water resource management (Kuhl irrigation systems, village ponds, spring harvesting), drainage management (diversion ditches, bio-engineering), and indigenous flora management (agroforestry, grasslands, bio-fencing). Additional practices include organic mulching, the use of farmyard manure, and wildlife management strategies. The synthesis demonstrates that farmers function as practical engineers, integrating local flora and materials through simple, effective methods refined by critical analysis of past experiences. Integration of ITK with modern scientific knowledge is essential for sustainable, climate-resilient agricultural development in hill and mountain ecosystems. The findings provide a framework for incorporating ITK into watershed development programs and soil conservation policies.
Farmer Producer Organizations and Agricultural Sustainability in Uttarakhand's Hills: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of Conservation Practices and Economic Outcomes
Hill agriculture in Uttarakhand is bottlenecked with multiple overlapping challenges. Fragmented landholdings, weak market linkages, severe soil erosion and growing climate variability are some of the major ones. Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) have been promoted as an institutional response to these constraints. But, the link between FPO membership and improved outcomes in ecological and economic domains has not been studied systematically in mountain agriculture. To address this gap, we studied 300 farm households (150 FPO members, 150 non-members) across three districts in Uttarakhand's Garhwal region. It was a cross-sectional survey using multistage random sampling. Key outcomes measured were: (1) a composite Resource Conservation Index (RCI; range 0-5) constructed from ten soil and water management practices, (2) agricultural income per nali (local land unit ≈ 0.02 ha) and (3) price realization ratio. Data was analysed for group differences and OLS Regression models controlling for farmer age, education, landholding size, market distance and districtlevel variations. FPO members demonstrated substantially higher conservation adoption (mean RCI: 3.25 vs. 2.15; 51% difference; p < 0.001), agricultural income (₹4,850 vs. ₹3,520 per nali; 38% difference; p < 0.001) and price realization (0.88 vs. 0.75; 13% difference; p < 0.001) compared to non-members. These associations persisted after multivariate adjustment (RCI: β = 1.25, p < 0.001; Income: β = ₹1,156, p < 0.001). The study found meaningful associations between FPO membership and improved performance in natural resource management and farm income. Interestingly, marginal (<3 nali) and less educated farmers showed stronger associations. These findings reinforce the role of FPO model for hill agriculture particularly when targeting marginalized farmers. The mechanism underlying these associations – whether through training, credit access, market linkage or other pathways – remains topic of future studies.
Soil Carbon Fractions and Management Indexes in Dragon Fruit (Hylocereus spp.) Cultivation in the Western Himalaya
Soil organic carbon (SOC) fractions give key insights into soil quality, nutrient cycling, and carbon storage in agriculture and horticulture. However, little research has explored SOC fractionation and carbon dynamics in dragon fruit systems, especially regarding accession differences. This study assesses SOC fractions and carbon management indices among dragon fruit accessions in the northwestern Himalaya to establish a baseline for this emerging crop. Seven accessions—Pink Gujarat (PG), White Gujarat (WG), Yellow Gujarat (YG), Pink Bangalore (PB), White Bangalore (WB), Local Pink Pulp (LPP), and Local White Pulp (LWP)—along with open field conditions (OC) as reference, were evaluated three years after planting. SOC fractions were measured using standard protocols with the modified Walkley-Black method and different acid concentrations. Results showed significant accession-specific variation in SOC fractions (p<0.05). Accessions YG, WB, and PB had the highest very labile (3.65-3.84 mg g⁻¹), labile (2.68-2.83 mg g⁻¹), and active carbon pools (6.33-6.67 mg g⁻¹), with 46- 86% higher active pools than open field (3.58 mg g⁻¹). PG had the highest non-labile (6.08±0.36 mg g⁻¹) and passive pools (8.66±0.38 mg g⁻¹). CMI ranged from 134.93 to 212.34, with YG highest. Strong correlations between labile fractions and CMI (r=0.99) show labile pools drive management index variation. This is the first baseline of SOC fractions in northwestern Himalayan dragon fruit accessions, revealing profiles: YG, WB, PB with higher active carbon, and PG, LWP with more stable carbon. These reflect SOC status three years after planting and serve as references for future monitoring. Long-term studies are needed to see if differences impact sequestration rates and distinguish plant from soil effects. YG, WB, and PB are promising for carbon research.
Water Management Technologies in Ladakh’s Cold Arid Region: Climate Impacts and Adaptive Strategies - A Field Documentation Study
Ladakh, a high-altitude cold arid region in the trans-Himalayan zone, faces escalating water scarcity due to climate change, marked by glacial retreat, reduced snowfall, and warming trends. This field documentation study synthesizes traditional and modern water management technologies—zings, kuhls, artificial glaciers, ice stupas, and polyhouses—to address these challenges in Leh and surrounding areas. Drawing on field observations (2022-2024), statistical climate analysis (1901-2023), and community insights, it evaluates technology performance and socio-economic impacts. Statistical analysis using Mann-Kendall tests (τ=0.18-0.32, p < 0.05) confirms significant warming trends (0.02-0.21°C year-1), while precipitation shows pronounced decline (-7.9 mm/year, 1990-2020) with increased drought frequency (SPI <-1 every 5- 7 years). Field surveys demonstrate that traditional technologies (zings, kuhls) increase irrigation coverage by 20-30%, while modern innovations (artificial glaciers, ice stupas, polyhouses) extend growing seasons and boost yields by 20-40%. However, challenges include groundwater depletion (1-2 m annually), contamination (70% of aquifers), high technology costs (₹13.5-75 lakh), and tourism-driven demand surges (10-15% in 2023). Sustainable strategies, including wastewater recycling, kuhl lining, technology subsidies, and policy reforms like water pricing, are proposed to enhance resilience. Comparisons with global arid regions underscore Ladakh's unique community-driven approach. This synthesis advocates integrating traditional practices with modern innovations to ensure water security in Ladakh's fragile ecosystem.
Mapping Hill and Mountain Ecosystem in India: A Review and Framework for Ecological Production Units (EPUs)
Mountain and hill ecosystems (the Himalaya-Northwest hills and Northeast hills, Aravalli, Western Ghats, and Eastern Ghats) in India provide critical ecosystem services, including biodiversity conservation, water regulation, and livelihood support, yet their spatial heterogeneity is poorly captured by existing classification frameworks. This paper presents a narrative synthesis of global and Indian approaches to mapping mountain ecosystems and evaluates their suitability for land-use planning in complex upland regions. We review major frameworks, including biogeographic zones, agroecological regions, watershed divisions, WWF ecoregions, and global mountain classifications, highlighting their strengths and limitations in representing ecological and production variability. A key gap identified is the absence of an integrated, operational unit that combines ecological, climatic, and socio-economic dimensions for planning purposes. To address this, we propose a conceptual multi-criteria GIS-based framework for delineating Ecological Production Units (EPUs) in Indian hill regions. The framework integrates topography, climate, soils, land cover, and human factors to define homogeneous units of ecological productivity and management relevance. The study demonstrates that EPUs can serve as a bridge between ecological classification and decision-making, with applications in watershed management, agroforestry, conservation planning, and climate adaptation. However, implementation is constrained by data gaps, scale mismatches, and institutional fragmentation. The paper contributes a structured synthesis of classification systems and provides a conceptual pathway toward operationalizing spatially explicit, ecosystem-based planning in India's hill and mountain regions.
River Sand Mining and Groundwater Systems: Mechanisms, Impacts, and Pathways to Sustainable Management
Sand mining is a common practice that provides vital resources for economic development and infrastructure development, but it also has adverse effects on the environment and social activities worldwide. However, its unregulated practices pose significant threats to the groundwater system. This review examines the impact of river sand mining on groundwater recharge, quality, and availability. Excessive sand mining alters riverbed morphology, reducing infiltration capacity and lowering the water table in adjacent aquifers. The sand acts as a natural filter; removing it can degrade groundwater quality by causing turbid water and contamination from surface pollutants. The over-extraction of sand disrupts hydraulic connectivity between rivers and aquifers, exacerbating groundwater depletion and threatening water scarcity for agricultural, industrial, and domestic use. This review paper consolidates the findings of the impact of sand mining on groundwater recharge, storage capacity, and sustainable water management practices. Strategies to mitigate adverse effects, including implementing a regulatory framework, adopting sustainable mining practices, and using alternative materials such as M-sand, quarry stone dust, and crushed rock, were suggested. This review highlights the need to balance developmental demands with the preservation of groundwater resources to ensure longterm environmental sustainability.
Assessment of effectiveness of extension methods for dissemination of soil and water conservation technologies
Study was initiated during 2004 with the objective to find out effective extension methods for dissemination of Soil and Water Conservation (SWC) technologies for watershed development. Frequency use and effectiveness indices along with structured schedules were developed to assess and evaluate different extension methods. The study revealed that majority of farmers were using radio and television more frequently for information on different agricultural and SWC technologies. The less frequently used extension methods by the farmers were bulletin and documentary film show, exhibition, study tour, result demonstration and method demonstration. It was also found that the most effective extension methods as perceived by farmers for dissemination of SWC technologies were farm and home visit in individual contact, discussion meeting and result demonstration in group contact and film show in mass contact. Whereas, according to officers of watershed development team and extension scientists the highly effective extension methods were farm and home visit in individual contact methods, result demonstration, study tour, lecture and discussion meeting in group contact methods and they considered none of extension method highly effective in mass contact methods. The study concludes that most effective extension methods as perceived by both, the farmers and officers were, farm and home visit in individual contact, result demonstration in group contact and bulletin as well as documentary film show in mass contact methods, for effective dissemination of SWCtechnologies for watershed management.
Copyright (c) 2014 Indian Journal of Soil Conservation
Geospatial assessment of erosional behaviour of a watershed inAngara block of Ranchi district, Jharkhand
Soil erosion assessment was carried out in Dumar Kocha watershed of Ranchi district in Jharkhand state to understand the erosional behavior geospatially using Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE). It was observed that average annual soil erosion for the watershed ranged from slight (<5 t ha yr ) to very severe (>80 t ha yr ). This was further observed that the watershed areas covered by slight, moderate, high, very high, severe and very severe erosion potential zones were 67, 12.42, 10.98, 3.82, 5.14 and 1.21% of the watershed, respectively. Spatial analysis using remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) indicated high soil erosion rates in central portion of the watershed, which could be attributed to the severe terrain modifications, inappropriate agricultural practices and forest degradations. Since the areas which are sensitive to soil loss could be demarcated, outcome of the study has the potential to serve as a valuable resource for better land management. Geoinformatics based analysis of erosion behavior in this region at watershed level can help manage natural resources better. Results thus obtained should further help in assessment of appropriate indicators to work upon for conserving water and soil through watershed management and land use planning.
Impact analysis of participatory integrated watershed management programme in semi-arid region ofTamil Nadu, India
Watershed management aimed to containing the deterioration of natural resources for maintaining the ecological balance and sustainable economic development. This paper presents the impacts of the participatory watershed development. The runoff varied from 27mmto 43.2 mm, which was 4.5 to 7.2% of the total rainfall. A total of 266 ha-cm additional surface water storage capacity was created through water resource development and increased wells recuperation rate by 10 to 15%. Influence zone of percolation ponds showed increased irrigated area from 13.7 ha to 25.1 ha (84%) with crop diversification. The average survival percent of fruit plants varied between 51 and 98.66%. The yield of dry land crops was increase by 11 to 14%. Cultivated Land Utilization Index (CLUI) increased by 0.13 (47 days) in dry land and by 0.04 (15 days) in irrigated condition. Overall Crop Productivity Index (CPI) increased from 0.547 to 0.613 with an increase of 12% in productivity level of crops. Overall Crop Fertilization Index (CFI) increased from 0.69 to 0.75, registering an increase of 8% in rate of nutrients application. The overall Watershed Productivity (WP) increased by 17.2% of horse gram. The overall People's Participation Index (PPI) was 62% indicating that the stake holders' overall participation was high. A total of 10105 mandays employment was generated due to various interventions.Average milk production has increased by 59 liters per family per year and consumption increased from 0.91 to 1.03 liters family day . –1 –1
Biomass production, carbon sequestration and water transmission properties as influenced by densified plantations raised on old river bed lands in the north west Himalayas
Old river bed lands in the NorthWest Himalayas have generally been utilized for the production of fodder and firewood but its quantative biomass production and resource (carbon and water) conservation potential have not been worked out. Plantations of three tree species -Grewia optiva Drumm, L. Bauhinia variegata And Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.were raised during 1996, at 2x2m (close), 3x2m (medium) and 4x2m(wide) spacings and were thinned mechanically at the age of 7, 12 and 15 years. The performance of D.sissoo was the best with trees attaining an average height of 9.87 m and 10.3 m in the 7 year and 12 year, respectively. G.optiva trees attained an average height of 5.67 m and 6.20 m at the same age. Foliage (as fodder) availability from annual prunings in G.optiva declined from the 11 year and woody biomass from the 8 year. More woody biomass was obtained at medium spacing and that of foliage at close spacing. First thinning in the 7 year yielded 54.70, 20.45 and 13.65 t ha of woody biomass at close spacing in D.sissoo, G.optiva and B.variegata, respectively, followed by production from B.variegata medium and wide spacing. During the 2 thinning at the 12 year, maximum woody biomass (100.50 t ha ) was obtained from D.sissoo at medium spacing followed by 53.43 t ha from G.optiva at wide spacing and 34.94 t ha from at medium spacing. Annual rate of increase of SOC in the 0-45 cm soil depth ranged from 502 to 1410 kg C ha . The humification rate was determined to be 0.195. Carbon sequestration rate varied from 1.32 to 0.55 t ha yr and followed the trend of D.sissoo<B.variegata<G.optiva .
Evaluation of bamboo based conservation measures for rehabilitation of degraded Yamuna ravines
This vast tract of existing ravine lands in northwestern part of India poses potential threat to nearby productive lands due to over exploitation and mismanagement. There is an urgent need to manage these problematic lands and protect both the arable and non-arable land from further degradation. Keeping this in view, an experiment was undertaken to evaluate bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) based resource conservation techniques in theYamuna ravines at Central Soil andWater Conservation Research and Training Institute, Research Centre at Agra (U.P). Four small micro watersheds were selected and four treatments viz., plantation of rows of bamboo in the upstream and downstream side of small earthen gully plugs (T ), plantation of bamboo in staggered manner in the gully bed with trenches (T ), two rows of bamboo planted in staggered manner as vegetative barrier (T ) and control catchment having no intervention (T ) were imposed in 2009 and gauging structures were constructed in all four watersheds.Among the four treatments,T-2 recorded highest growth in terms of average culm height (126.20 cm), average culm diameter (7.56 mm) and crown size (72.86 cm) were recorded in T followed byT than others. The soil physical and chemical properties werealso considerably influenced by bamboo plants under treatment imposed lands. The soils under bamboo improved in terms of decreased pH and enhanced soil organic carbon. No soil loss and run off were observed inT andT after imposition of treatments as compared to average runoff (6.04 and 35.83 mm), average soil loss (0.66 and 4.40 t ha ) and average silt deposition (0.348 and 0.410 t ha yr ) recorded in T and control, respectively. In ravine lands, Bamboo acts as good soil binder owing to its dry hardy nature, peculiar dense clump formation and extensive interlocking fibrous root system, natural capacity to regenerate through its rhizomes which play important role in preventing erosion, water holding capacity and nutrient cycling under gully beds.
Impact of rain water harvesting and mulching on growth and yield of apple (Malus domestica) under rainfed condition
Field demonstration trials were conducted for two consecutive years (2011 and 2012) to study the influence of rain water harvesting and mulching on rainfed apple production. Results clearly indicated that maximum mean plant height (3.08 m), canopy spread (4.15mx 3.96 m), fruit yield (120.36 kg tree ) and productivity efficiency (0.46 kg cm TCSA) were recorded in full moon water harvesting system + plastic mulch. Significantly highest mean TCSA (265.32 cm ) was recorded inTrench + plastic mulch. Maximum fruit weight (186.3 g) was recorded in half moon + plastic mulch in demonstration plot-I. Whereas, in demonstration plot II, the maximum mean plant height (3.70 m) was recorded in trench system+ plastic mulch. However, highest meanTCSA(104.02 cm ), canopy spread (2.96m x 3.23 m), fruit yield (91.91 kg tree ) and productivity efficiency (0.89 kg cm TCSA) were recorded in full moon water harvesting system+ plastic mulch. Highest fruit weight (171.7 g) was recorded in half moon + plastic mulch in apple.
Impact of varying soil moisture regimes on growth and soil nutrient availability in mango
A field experiment was conducted at the Research Farm of Central Institute for Sub-tropical Horticulture, Lucknow during 1995-1999 to evaluate the effect of different soil moisture regimes on tree growth and soil nutrient dynamics in mango orchard. It was observed that the regulated irrigation under available soil moisture (ASM) depletion levels influenced tree growth and nutrient availability. The annual increase in stem girth, tree height and canopy spread of trees under 45%ASM level was found to be superior to control.Available N, P, K and DTPAextractable micronutrients Zn, Cu, Mn and Fe registered the maximum values in 45%ASM levels followed by 60% and 30%ASM depletion levels Soil nutrients were positively and significantly correlated to one another. Available nutrients were in higher range in upper 50cmlayer as compared to deeper layers.
Available soil moisture depletion levels
Conservation measures for resource conservation and enhancing yield of sorghum (SorghumbicolorL.) in red soils ofBundelkhand region in central India
A study was conducted during rainy seasons (kharif) of 2005 to 2007 at CSWCRTI, Research Centre, Datia, Madhya Pradesh to evaluate the efficiency of conservation measures in reducing erosion losses and increasing sorghum yield on slopy agricultural lands in red soils. The treatments included farmer's practice (control), earthen contour bunds (CB) at 0.7 and 0.9mVI, vegetative barriers (VB) of at 0.7 m VI in runoff plots of Cenchrus ciliaris and Heteropogon contortus 80x20m at 3% slope. Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Monech.] was grown along contours except control under rainfed conditions in all the plots with recommended package of practices. Results indicated that different conservation measures were effective in conserving higher rainwater, reducing soil and nutrient losses and increasing yield of sorghum over control. Mean results of 3 years showed that highest runoff (31.6%), soil loss (939 kg ha ) and nutrient loss (organic carbon 10.39, N 2.36, P 0.63 and K 0.93 kg ha ) and lower grain yield (481 kg ha ) of sorghum were recorded under farmer's practice. However, lowest runoff (3.0%), soil loss (31 kg ha ) and nutrient loss (organic carbon 0.39, nitrogen 0.18, phosphorus 0.07and potassium 0.18 kg ha ) and higher grain yield (531 kg ha ; 11%increase) of sorghum over farmer's practice were obtained under contour bund at 0.7mVI. Study revealed that among different conservation measures, CB at 0.7 m VI found best for resource conservation and enhancing the yield of sorghum on sloping agricultural lands in red soils of Bundelkhand region in Central India.
Meteorological drought and coping strategies by small and marginal farmers in semi-arid Karnataka
Occurrence of frequent droughts of varying intensities is a critical constraint in improving agricultural productivity in the dry tropics. This paper quantifies meteorological drought from long-term annual rainfall data. Analysis of primary survey data from two watersheds indicated that moisture stress and fodder shortage were the major shocks experienced by farmers during drought, which caused low productivity of crops and animals. Farmers had their own strategies to cope with the drought like diversifying farming practices, borrowing, migration, sale of assets and livestock. The logit regression model indicated that coping strategies were influenced by number of earning family members, availability of irrigation facility, animal holding and income from non-farm sources. There is an urgent need to implement drought mitigation measures by central and state government institutions through both short and long term strategies covering technological and policy interventions like alternate cropping systems that augment soil moisture conservation, emphasis on water harvesting and ground water recharge, ensuring fodder and seed supplies, credit assistance, etc.
Unfolding the feasibility of rabi cropping through soil moisture characterization in Sibsagar district ofAssam, India
Characterization of soil water retention properties coupled with feasibility of growing rabi crops during post kharif period were carried out in this study. Soil samples from profiles located at different physiography were collected. It was observed that water retention is high at the FC and minimum at PWP. Water retention study showed that the release behavior differed according to the soil texture. Bulk density was seen to be negatively correlated with 0.33 bar (-0.597**) and 15 bar (-0.637**). Clay hold significant and negative correlation with all the sand fractions and high positive and significant correlations with 0.33 bar (0.730**) and 15 bar (0.744**). Regression study showed that at 0.33 bar a maximum of 75.68% variability could be explained by bulk density, organic carbon parameters, silt, clay with some sand fractions whereas at 15 bar, bulk density, organic carbon and to a great extent clay played a key role to account for 74.5% variability. The total available water (TAW) and readily available water (RAW) for rabi crops like lentil, moong, bengal gram, sesame differed. The study indicated that light soils could supply water for a period of 10 to 13 days, medium soils for 29 to 33 days and heavy soils for 28 to 37 days. It was found that the light soils would suffer from severe water stress in the initial stage and the other soils at latter part of the growing periods causing failure of crops. Therefore, rabi cropping based on only AWC of soils would not be feasible during post kharif period in the district.