The Indian Journal of Soil Conservation is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published three times a year—April, August, and December—by the Indian Association of Soil and Water Conservationists. Focused on the study and promotion of soil and water conservation techniques, the journal provides a platform for research and discussions on sustainable land management, soil erosion control, and conservation practices. The journal is widely abstracted by renowned databases such as CAB, AGRIS, INSDOC, and ENVIS, ensuring its research reaches a global audience. With its ISSN numbers 0970-3349 (print) and 0976-1721 (online), the Indian Journal of Soil Conservation serves as a valuable resource for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers in the field of environmental conservation and natural resource management.
Indian Association of Soil and Water Conservationists
Crop Productivity and Sustainable Agricultural Systems in Snow-Receiving Hazardous Himachal Mountains: A Review
The snow-receiving regions of Himachal Pradesh — Lahaul-Spiti, Kinnaur, upper Kullu and parts of Chamba, lying broadly above 2,000 m amsl — sustain agriculture under severe constraints: short growing seasons, snowmelt-dependent irrigation, fragmented holdings, steep erodible slopes and recurrent natural hazards. This paper reviews published literature, government statistical reports, and institutional assessments for the period 2000–2025 to assess crop types, productivity, investment cum developmental schemes, natural resources, hazards, and sustainability constraints having accessible intermittent and scattered evidence in the concerned and related regions. Reported snow season warming of about 1.2°C during 1982–2007 at Solang (2,500 m), nearly 50 percent reduction in seasonal snowfall, and earlier snowmelt have disrupted the kuhl-fed irrigation on which the region depends; only about 12 percent of Kullu's net sown area is irrigated. Yields remain well below national and international benchmarks — wheat about 1.85 t ha−1 (State average, 2023), barley 1.5–2 t ha−1, seed potato 20–30 t ha−1 — while apple productivity has been declining at about 0.183 t ha−1 per year. Public investment is substantial and rising, yet reported scheme progress for 2010–2015 shows near-uniform annual increments that warrant independent verification, and no published study relates investment to measured productivity gain in snow-receiving tracts. The review concludes that drought-resistant cum cold-tolerant and high-value crops, micro-irrigation and kuhl restoration, soil, snow and water conservation, afforestation and hazard-sensitive planning together offer a workable adaptation pathway, but that altitude-stratified monitoring, controlled crop trials and independent scheme evaluation are prerequisites for sound policy. Limitations of the underlying data are stated explicitly throughout.
Copyright (c) 2026 Indian Journal of Soil Conservation
Biomass Partitioning and Ecosystem Carbon Stocks of Populus deltoides and Leucaena leucocephala under Different High-Density Planting Spacings From North-Western India
Agroforestry systems play a pivotal role in enhancing biomass production and carbon sequestration, thereby contributing to climate change mitigation and sustainable land management. The present study evaluated biomass accumulation and carbon stock of 8-year-old Populus deltoides and Leucaena leucocephala plantations established in 2013 under four high-density planting spacings (3.0 × 1.0, 3.0 × 1.5, 3.0 × 2.0, and 3.0 × 2.5 m), using a split-plot design with three replications during 2021. Results revealed that aboveground biomass (AGB) was significantly higher in Leucaena (225.2 t ha⁻¹) than Populus (201.1 t ha⁻¹), whereas belowground biomass (BGB) was 73.3% greater in Leucaena (63.14 t ha⁻¹). Carbon concentration ranged from 43.28–49.29% among aboveground components and 44.48–46.25% among belowground components, with the highest values consistently observed in the bole and stump roots, respectively. Total aboveground carbon stock was significantly higher in Leucaena (109.7 t ha⁻¹) than Populus (97.91 t ha⁻¹), while belowground carbon stock was numerically greater in Leucaena (20.66 t ha⁻¹). Wider planting spacing (3.0 × 2.5 m) significantly enhanced biomass production and vegetation carbon stock, recording the highest total biomass (338.7 t ha⁻¹), vegetation carbon stock (165.9 t ha⁻¹), and total ecosystem carbon stock (217.6 t ha⁻¹). Conversely, soil carbon stock declined with increasing spacing and was highest under the closest spacing (3.0 × 1.0 m). Overall, under the 8-year-old plantation conditions evaluated in the present study, Leucaena demonstrated greater biomass production and carbon sequestration potential than Populus, while wider spacing promoted greater vegetation carbon accumulation. These findings highlight the importance of appropriate species selection and planting geometry for maximizing carbon sequestration and improving the climate change mitigation potential of high-density agroforestry systems.
Evaluation of Water Quality Using Water Quality Index: Case Study of SacredPonds in the Imphal Valley, India
Sacred ponds in the sacred groves of the Imphal valley, northeast India, are an integral part of the Meitei ethnic group’s culture, religion and social fabric. Till date, the cultural linkages have protected the groves. However, population growth and modernization have impacted the groves at present, with most of the sacred sites and its associated ponds threatened. In the present study, physico-chemical characteristics of water from 10 sacred ponds were analysed during 2023-24. The analysis showed pH ranging from 7.01±0.02 to 8.68 ±0.23 for post monsoon (PoM) and 7.50±0.04 to 8.82±0.10 for pre monsoon (PM), electrical conductivity (EC) ranging from 109± 1.53 to 269±2.65 µS cm-1 for PoM and 331±1.46 to 681±7.43 µS cm-1 for PM, and dissolved oxygen (DO) ranging from 2.9±1.56 to 4.7±2.69 mg L-1 for PoM and 2.1±0.14 to 2.9±0.14 mg L-1 for PM, respectively. In addition, the Water Quality Index (WQI) calculated showed that the ponds are in the very bad or unsuitable category for drinking. The WQI ranges from 107.31 to 211.91 during PoM and 87.46 to 239.51 during PM seasons, respectively. However, locals unaware of the ecological health still consider the ponds as safe, which in today’s conditions have become a source of threat to health. Hence, restoration of the sacred sites is an urgent need of the hour.
Combined Application of Biochar and Nitrogenous Fertilizers Influences Growth and Productivity of Rainy and Spring Seasons Maize
The use of biochar and other organic amendments not only reduces fertilizer dosage but also improves crop growth and water productivity. A field study was conducted in rainy or kharif season maize (2019) and spring maize (2020) with main-plots having BN₁ (biochar @ 7.5 t ha⁻¹ + N @ 75 kg ha⁻¹), BN₂ (biochar @ 7.5 t ha⁻¹ + N @ 150 kg ha⁻¹), FN₁ (farmyard manure @ 20 t ha⁻¹ + N @ 75 kg ha⁻¹), FN₂ (farmyard manure @ 20 t ha⁻¹ + N @ 150 kg ha⁻¹), N₁ (N @ 75 kg ha⁻¹) and N₂ (N @ 150 kg ha⁻¹) and sub-plots with two irrigations, viz., I₀.₆ (IW/CPE: 0.6) and I₀.₉ (IW/CPE: 0.9). Higher plant height (2.96 m), SPAD value (58.55), stover yield (23.89 t ha⁻¹), cob yield (8.14 t ha⁻¹) and grain yield (5.78 t ha⁻¹) were obtained under BN₂ treatment compared to other treatments. BN₂ increased grain yield by 22.7% and 28.5%, and water productivity by 21.6% and 27.6% in rainy season and spring season compared to N₂. The I₀.₆ treatment resulted in higher water productivity by 5.5% compared to I₀.₉ during the spring season, but grain yield was significantly higher under the I₀.₉ treatment. Therefore, BN₂ with I₀.₉ is a viable practice for achieving higher crop productivity.
Evaluation of Different Biochar Sources on Growth, Yield and Soil Fertility of Okra and Brinjal in Inceptisol from Odisha : A Pot Study
Declining soil organic carbon and nutrient imbalances in Inceptisols of eastern India have reduced productivity of intensive vegetable systems under sole chemical fertilizer use. However, limited information exists on the comparative effectiveness of different biochar sources integrated with farmyard manure (FYM) and recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) for improving soil fertility and yield of okra and brinjal. In this context, a pot experiment was conducted during 2021–2022 at the ICAR–Indian Institute of Soil Science (IISS), Bhopal, India, to evaluate the effect of different biochar sources and application rates, alone and in combination with FYM and RDF on growth, yield, and soil fertility of okra and brinjal grown in an Inceptisol soil collected from Belpada, Odisha. The experiment was laid out in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with eleven treatments replicated four times, involving two biochar sources {crop residue biochar (CRB) of groundnut, mustard, and rice husk and mixed wood biochar (WCB) of Prosopis juliflora and coconut husk} applied at 0, 4, and 8 g kg⁻¹ soil, with and without FYM (5 g kg⁻¹ soil) and (RDF). Results revealed that integrated application of biochar, FYM, and RDF significantly (p < 0.05) improved plant height and yield of both the crops over the control (0) and fertilizer-alone treatments. The treatment crop residue biochar @ 8 g kg⁻¹ soil + FYM @ 5 g kg⁻¹ soil + RDF (F CRB M ) consistently recorded the highest yields of 1 8 5 okra (182.4 g pot-1) and brinjal (262.5 g pot-1), resulting in nearly two-fold higher fruit yield of okra and three- to four-fold higher fruit yield of brinjal compared to the control across both years. This treatment also improved N, P, and K uptake substantially, with N uptake increasing more than four fold in okra and over twofold in brinjal, accompanied by marked increases in P and K uptake across both crops. Biochar application moderated soil reaction, raising soil pH from near-neutral control levels (~7.26) to ~7.64, indicating its liming potential, while soil organic carbon (SOC), available P, and available K increased by 114%, 170%, and 27%, respectively, under integrated treatments. Unlike earlier studies focusing on single biochar sources or short-term responses, this study provides a comparative assessment of crop residue and mixed biomass biochars at graded rates under integrated application with FYM and RDF, highlighting their cumulative effects. The findings offer new insights into optimized biochar-based nutrient management strategies for sustaining vegetable productivity and soil fertility in Inceptisols. Although it is just a pot study but it concludes that biochar alone is insufficient, but its integration with FYM and RDF, particularly crop residue biochar at higher rates, is an effective and sustainable strategy for enhancing vegetable productivity and soil fertility in Inceptisol soils.
Green Manuring with Sesbania aculeata for Weed Suppression, Rice Productivity, and Soil Carbon Sequestration in Central India
Continuous monocropping coupled with suboptimal management practices accelerates soil degradation and exacerbates environmental stress. In this context, legume-based green manuring has emerged as a sustainable strategy for enhancing soil health, environmental quality, and crop productivity in rice-based systems. It was hypothesized that incorporation of 45-day-old Sesbania aculeata biomass (4.73-5.03 t ha-1) prior to rice transplanting would enhance rice productivity and profitability, suppress weed infestation, and promote soil carbon stabilization. A three-year field study (2014–2016) was conducted on large plots (4000 m² per field) comparing rice fields with and without S. aculeata incorporation. The results revealed that S. aculeata incorporation significantly (p < 0.05) reduced weed density and biomass (41.7-57.3% and 36.6-38.4%, respectively), while substantially increasing rice grain and straw yields (5.84-7.52 and 6.84-8.65 t ha-1, respectively). Furthermore, green manuring with S. aculeata improved soil physical properties, notably reducing bulk density (1.39 Mg m from 1.42), and significantly enhanced soil organic carbon (SOC) content (0.37% to 0.45%). Continuous incorporation over three years contributed appreciable carbon to the soil profile, resulting in higher soil carbon stocks than in the non-incorporated system. Incorporation of S. aculeata as green manure effectively suppresses weeds, enhances rice yield, improves soil health, increases carbon sequestration, and allows a reduction of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer by ~20 kg N ha⁻¹, thereby lowering production costs and mitigating potential environmental pollution.
Extent of Awareness, Utility and Constraints in Adoption of Site-Specific Land Resource Inventory Information in New Generation Watersheds
The Land Resource Inventory (LRI), a scientific farm-level planning tool introduced under Karnataka's Sujala-III watershed project, has low field adoption among farmers despite its strengths. This study examines awareness, dissemination, utility, and adoption barriers across 20 micro-watersheds using surveys of 900 farmers and focus groups with Project Implementing Agencies (PIAs). Findings show a steep drop from awareness to actual use, with only 22% of farmers knew about LRI, 20.2% received LRI cards, 11.4% had training, and only 6.56% used LRI information for crop or nutrient decisions. Just 2.89% had read their LRI card more than once, and only 5.89% remembered LRI details of their land. Major LRI adoption constraints include lack of awareness of site-specific information (70%), insufficient training, conservatism and illiteracy among watershed farmers. From the PIAs perspective, key challenges included difficulty in promoting adoption of site-specific crop suitability, securing acceptance of recommendations among farmers, and timing issues with LRI card delivery. Overall, low adoption stems from systemic institutional, logistical, and behavioral gaps, requiring farmer-focused dissemination, stronger extension links, integration of LRI with existing systems, and participatory planning to align scientific advice with local needs.
Comparative Effects of Crop Residue Mulches on Weed Dynamics, Soil Moisture, and Yields of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) Under Rainfed Conditions
In rainfed chickpea cultivation, soil moisture stress and severe weed infestation are major constraints limiting productivity, while open-field burning of crop residues poses serious environmental concerns. With this background, an experiment was conducted during the winter or Rabi season of 2022-23 at Agricultural Research Farm, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, to evaluate the effects of different crop residue mulches on weed dynamics, soil moisture conservation, growth, and yield of chickpea. The experiment was laid out in a randomized block design (RBD) with seven treatments and three replications. The treatments included: without mulch, dust mulch, paddy straw mulch @ 5 t ha-1, maize stover mulch @ 5 t ha-1, Leucaena twigs mulch @ 5 t ha-1, paddy straw mulch @ 2.5 t ha-1 + Leucaena twigs mulch @ 2.5 t ha-1, maize stover mulch @ 2.5 t ha-1 + Leucaena twigs mulch @ 2.5 t ha-1. Results revealed that the application of paddy straw mulch at 5 t ha-1 was the best treatment for reducing weed density and biomass at 60 and 90 DAS of chickpea. Although dust mulching recorded lower weed density and biomass at 30 DAS, it was ineffective during the subsequent crop growth period due to rapid flushes and proliferating weed germination. The maximum mid-season surface soil moisture (16.7%) was recorded under paddy straw mulch @ 5 t ha⁻¹ at 60 DAS, and it was found at par with paddy straw mulch @ 2.5 t ha-¹ + Leucaena twigs mulch @ 2.5 t ha-1 while the minimum was observed under no mulch treatment. Moreover, paddy straw mulch @ 2.5 t ha-1 + Leucaena twigs mulch @ 2.5 t ha-1 excelled over all other treatments in terms of growth, yield parameters, and yield. Hence, application of paddy straw mulch @ 2.5 t ha-1 + Leucaena twigs mulch @ 2.5 t ha-1 may be recommended for higher growth and yield of chickpea under rainfed conditions similar to the experimental site.
Hydrological Modeling for Environmental Flow Estimation under Data- Scarce Condition
Estimating environmental flows is crucial for mitigating anthropogenic impacts and restoring their ecological functions; however, such assessments remain challenging, particularly in data-scarce and regulated basins. This study addresses this gap by estimating environmental flows for the Sankh River (4,027.4 km²), a regulated and hydrologically data-limited tributary in eastern India, using an integrated Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT)– Global Environmental Flow Calculator (GEFC) modeling framework. Despite its widespread use, the SWAT-GEFC approach is limited in small- to medium-sized Indian basins, especially in ecologically sensitive and undermonitored rivers such as the Sankh. The SWAT model performed satisfactorily in simulating streamflow, as evidenced by the test statistics obtained during calibration and validation (NSE: 0.81 and 0.90; R²: 0.81 and 0.92; RSR: 0.44 and 0.32, respectively). To assess ecological flow requirements, the GEFC was used to derive environmental flow regimes through Flow Duration Curves (FDCs) and Environmental Management Classes (EMCs). Results indicate a systematic decline in Mean Annual Runoff (MAR) allocations from EMC “A” to “F”, with SWAT-simulated values (39.5 to 0.9%) closely matching with the observed trends (47.1 to 1%), thereby supporting the model robustness. Seasonal analysis identified December and January as the most flowstressed months, with a minimum ecological flow threshold of 5.72 m³ s⁻¹ required to sustain riverine health. The findings offer practical benchmarks for integrating environmental flows into reservoir management, regional water allocation, and policy planning, particularly within the framework of India's National Water Policy (2012). Integrating hydrological modeling with ecological considerations can lead to sustainable river management. Future research should integrate habitat simulation models and climate-change-driven flow scenarios to support resilient and adaptive environmental flow management.
Frequency Analysis of Five Days Antecedent Rainfall for Different Seasons for Kohima (Nagaland)
In the present study, daily rainfall data recorded at Kohima for 26 years (1997-2022) were collected. Data were grouped by seasonal rainfall: monsoon, pre–monsoon, and post-monsoon. The 5-day total antecedent rainfall prior to the storm was calculated for three seasons and fitted to various probability distribution functions. The distribution with the lowest χ2 value was declared the best fit function. Using the best fit probability distribution function, 05 days antecedent rainfall(mm) under different antecedent moisture conditions (AMCs) and seasons were calculated for different return periods. Only 15.56 % of the total number of 5 days of antecedent rainfall fall under AMC-II conditions. Therefore, of all recorded events, 60.05 per cent fall under AMC-I and 24.39 per cent under AMC-III, necessitating adjustment of the curve number from AMC-II to AMC-I or AMC-III, respectively, to reflect these proportions of cases. Results of the turning point test statistics fall within the 5% significance level for all seasons and AMC conditions, indicating that the data set could be considered random. Log normal and Normal probability distribution functions were found to be the best-fit probability distribution functions for AMC-I and AMC-III rainfall for the post-monsoon season, respectively. Extreme value-I probability distribution function was found to be the best fit for the pre-monsoon season rainfall of AMC-II and AMC-III, and the monsoon season rainfall of AMC-II. The log Pearson Type III probability distribution function was found to be the best fit for monsoon-season rainfall of AMC-I and for premonsoon- season rainfall of AMC-I. The gamma probability distribution function was found to be the best fit for post-monsoon season rainfall in AMC-II. Across all three seasons and AMCs, 5-day incident rainfall increased with increasing recurrence interval. The estimated values of 5-day antecedent rainfall (mm) under different AMCs and seasons at different recurrence intervals can be used to predict runoff in Kohima (Nagaland).
Continuous probability distribution function
Spatial Patterns of Soil Organic Carbon in South Delhi District : A Multi-Land Use Baseline Assessment
Soil organic carbon (SOC) is a fundamental component of soil health and plays a critical role in climate regulation and ecosystem functioning. In rapidly urbanizing regions, spatial variation in SOC reflects complex land use patterns, yet spatially explicit assessments across diverse urban land uses remain limited. This study characterized the spatial distribution of SOC and associated soil physicochemical properties across five major land-use and land-cover (LULC) types in South Delhi District, India. Soil samples were collected from 98 locations representing agriculture, forest, scrub forest, built-up, and wasteland areas during 2021 and 2022. At each location, samples were obtained from three depth intervals (0–10, 10–20, and 20–30 cm) and analyzed for SOC, bulk density, moisture content, pH, electrical conductivity, water holding capacity, porosity, and particle density. Spatial patterns of SOC were assessed using Empirical Bayesian Kriging (EBK). SOC concentrations varied significantly across LULC types, with forest soils highest (0.62–0.66% at 0–10 cm) and wasteland soils lowest (0.15–0.17% at 0–10 cm, dropping to 0.06–0.08% at 20–30 cm). Built-up areas had similar low levels. SOC decreased with depth across all land uses, with 60–70% in the surface layer. SOC correlated strongly with bulk density, porosity, and water retention. EBK mapping revealed SOC-rich zones in forests and depleted zones in urban and degraded lands, with good validation. This study sets a baseline for SOC in South Delhi, highlighting hotspots and depleted areas for conservation. The spatial patterns suggest stability over two years. Limitations include uneven sampling, short duration, and lack of vegetation and land management data. Future work should include long-term monitoring, vegetation, soil texture, and SOC fractionation to better understand carbon dynamics.
Landform - Based Soil Variability and Water Regime Implications in the KRP Dam Catchment, Tamil Nadu, India
Hydropedology studies soil and water processes across landscapes. This research characterized the soils in the Krishnagiri Reservoir Project (KRP) Dam catchment, Tamil Nadu, India, to identify pedological indicators of water regimes and the effects of land management. A (2020-2023) soil survey at a 1:10,000 scale provided data for the 12,483 ha catchment. Five soil series from various landforms were classified, and drainage classes were estimated based on soil features without direct hydrological monitoring. Soil properties varied by landform, from shallow (<50 cm) to deep (100- 150 cm), with drainage from well to poorly drained. Colors ranged from dark reddishbrown to black; textures ranged from loamy sand to clay. Structure ranged from massive to subangular blocky; pH from neutral to moderately alkaline (6.74-9.19), electrical conductivity from non-saline to slightly saline (0.04-1.64 dS m⁻¹), organic carbon from low to high (0.15-2.17%), and cation exchange capacity from 4.43 to 54.0 cmol (p⁺) kg⁻¹. The soil exchange complex held Ca > Mg > K > Na. Soil classes included Alfisols (NGH & MLD series - uplands), Inceptisols (STP & SDK series - lowlands), and Entisols (KLV series - lowlands). Soils with periodic saturation (KLV, STP, SDK) had higher clay, CEC, and nutrients than well-drained uplands (NGH, MLD). Correlation analysis (n=45) showed strong positive relationships between clay, CEC, and exchangeable bases, with sand negatively correlating. Upland soils exhibited erosion and nutrient loss with low water-holding capacity (5.44-7.99%). Lowland soils had higher available water (11.89-22.39%) but signs of drainage issues and salt buildup. This study provides a baseline for soil features in the KRP Dam catchment. Water regime inferences need validation via direct hydrological monitoring, including water table, soil moisture, and hydraulic testing. Conservation strategies for uplands (erosion, organic matter) and lowlands (drainage, salinity) should be field-tested before implementation. This baseline supports future integrated research for sustainable crop management in dam-affected regions.
Short-Term Effects of Solid Piggery Sludge Application on Soil Properties and Metal Accumulation In Rice and Maize under Humid Lowland Tropical Conditions in Papua New Guinea
The livestock industry in humid tropical regions is generating increasing amounts of piggery waste, necessitating sustainable solutions. Agricultural land application offers waste-to-resource potential, but concerns about heavy metal contamination and crop safety necessitate evaluation. This study examined short-term effects of solid piggery sludge (SPS) on soil properties and metal accumulation in rice and maize in Papua New Guinea over six months, with four SPS rates (0, 2.5, 5, and 10 t ha⁻¹) and five replicates. Soil samples were analyzed for physical, chemical, macronutrients, and heavy metals; plant tissues for metal content and bioaccumulation; and growth parameters were measured pre-reproduction. Data showed SPS increased soil organic carbon (121- 185% in control vs. 1,021-1,316% at 10 t ha⁻¹), organic matter, and water holding capacity; nitrogen rose from 1,200-1,450 to 2,100-2,300 mg kg⁻¹; macro- and micronutrient levels increased dose-dependently. Heavy metals like lead, cadmium, and chromium exceeded FAO limits at higher rates. Maize benefited from SPS, with height and dry matter up by 69-83% and 55-140%, respectively; rice showed growth inhibition at higher rates despite more tillers. Tissue metal levels were higher in rice; bioaccumulation factors often below 1.0, except for Co, Zn, and Mn at higher doses. Low SPS (≤2.5 t ha⁻¹) improved soil fertility while keeping metal levels near background; higher rates risk metal accumulation. Maize tolerated metals better than rice. Plants were harvested before grains fully matured, so actual grain safety is unknown. Six months limit long-term assessment of metal buildup and system sustainability. Results suggest 2.5 t ha⁻¹ as a tentative safe maximum, but multi-year studies are needed before commercial use.
Eco-Friendly Livelihood Interventions for Income Enhancement among Vulnerable Households in a Western Himalayan Village Cluster: A Participatory Action Research Study
Small rainfed hill farms in the Indian Himalayan Region face ecological fragility, resource depletion, and farmland abandonment, requiring alternative livelihoods for vulnerable communities. This study assesses the economic viability and socioecological impacts of low- cost livelihood interventions for marginalized households in Uttarakhand' s Jyoli village (2020-2022). Using participatory action research, we implemented six eco- friendly interventions i.e. protected cultivation, backyard poultry, beekeeping, vermi- composting, bio- briquetting, and green skilling—among 150 purposively selected households (Scheduled Caste, Below Poverty Line, COVIDaffected, women- headed) from a cluster with baseline mean income ` 13, 134/HH/year. Daily input- output registers, beneficiary surveys, and cost- benefit analyses quantified outcomes over 24 months. Non- beneficiary households (n = 153) provided contextual comparison. Of 150 intervention households, 62 (41. 3%) achieved income doubling to ` 28, 935/HH by September 2022, primarily through poultry (85 HH; 2, 700 birds; B:C 2. 13; ` 69,56,951 revenue despite 17% mortality, χ ² = 4. 8, p = 0. 03) and polyhouses (41 units; 26. 16 t ha-1 vegetable yield—16 × higher than open fields, p< 0. 001; B:C 2. 66, 95% CI: 2. 12–3. 20). Overall project investment of ` 61,4,612 generated ` 97,6,976 output (net ` 5, 15, 515; aggregate B:C 2. 12). Scale of adoption explained 95% of income variance (r = 0. 975, p< 0. 001), while per- household profitability explained 77% (r = 0. 878, p< 0. 001). Complementary activities—beekeeping (81 kg honey; 27–73% pollination- driven crop yield gains), vermi- composting (68 quintals), and green skilling (91% women participants)—enhanced nutrition security and women' s empowerment (73. 2% self- confidence, 70.7% economic gains). However, only 42.9% reported reduced migration. Integrated livelihood models combining poultry with polyhouse- beekeeping can boost income under favorable conditions (support, inputs, demand). Success rate of 41% indicates potential but scalability faces barriers: chick supply, subsidized feed (56. 6% costs), veterinary services, market access, climate risk management. The model' s focus on SC/BPL and ecological benefits (biodiversity, fewer forest fires, water harvesting) offers climate- resilient development paths, though sustainability beyond project are duration remains uncertain.
Copyright (c) 2025 Indian Journal of Soil Conservation
Assessing Agronomic Risk under Altitudinal-Slope Variations in Eastern India: A Conceptual Synthesis of Soil-Water-Productivity Interactions
Topographic heterogeneity is a defining feature of the Eastern Region of India (ERI), where sharp gradients in altitude and slope exert strong control over soil formation processes, hydrological dynamics, vegetation distribution, and agricultural performance. There is an urgent need to synthesize multidisciplinary evidence to evaluate agronomic risks associated with altitudinal–slope variations across ERI's major landscape units—floodplains, piedmonts, undulating uplands, and hilly terrains. Steeper slopes and higher elevations consistently elevates risks due to enhanced runoff generation, severe soil erosion, rapid nutrient loss, reduced soil organic carbon (SOC), and diminished soil moisture retention, collectively heightening susceptibility to crop failure. In contrast, mid-altitude zones with higher vegetation cover tend to exhibit moderated erosion and improved soil stability, while lower elevations face complex risks driven by intensive cultivation, sedimentation, land-use transitions, and expanding urbanization. Comparable evidence from Himalayan and other terraincomplex regions reinforces these topography-driven degradation patterns, particularly regarding erosion rates, nutrient redistribution, and SOC variability. The terrain attributes fundamentally regulate soil physical, chemical, and biological properties, influencing micronutrient availability, infiltration capacity, SOC stocks, and vegetation structure—key determinants of agronomic suitability. With projected increases in rainfall intensity and monsoonal variability under climate change, these topographylinked risks are expected to intensify. Incorporating high-resolution terrain metrics into agronomic risk assessments can substantially strengthen land-use planning, soil conservation strategies, and climate-resilient agricultural management. Thus, there is urgent need for altitude- and slope-responsive interventions including erosion control, vegetative reinforcement, precision nutrient management, and landscape-specific conservation practices to safeguard soil health and ensure sustainable agricultural productivity in the highly diverse and vulnerable eastern region of India.
Geospatial Assessment of Temperate Fruit Sites for Sustainable Horticultural Diversification in Meghalaya
Meghalaya has significant potential for horticultural diversification, particularly for temperate fruit crops. This study evaluates site suitability for apple, pear, and peach cultivation in Meghalaya using geospatial techniques, with a specific focus on sustainable land use and soil conservation in a landscape prone to degradation. Key parameters considered include soil depth, drainage, texture, pH, organic matter, nutrient availability (P and K), climatic variables (temperature, rainfall, and chilling hours), and topographic variables (slope, elevation, and slope aspect). Suitable areas were classified into highly suitable (S1), moderately suitable (S2), marginally suitable (S3), and not suitable (N) zones using the FAO Land Evaluation Framework. The suitability model was validated against 785 ground-truth observations, yielding an overall accuracy of 90% and a Kappa coefficient of 0.86, confirming its predictive reliability. West Khasi Hills emerges as the district with the highest concentration of suitable land for all three crops, particularly in the blocks of Mawthadraishan, Nongstoin, and Mairang. A total of 64,485.92 hectares were identified as suitable for at least one crop, of which 24,259.52 hectares are highly suitable for all three simultaneously — representing the most promising zones for integrated orchard development and long-term soil stabilization. By providing a spatially explicit framework, this study supports evidence-based planning for nursery development, cold-chain infrastructure, marketing linkages, and climate-resilient horticultural diversification in Meghalaya.
Assessing Feasible Weed Management Options in Maize under Organic Farming System of Eastern Himalayas
Weed management under organic farming relies heavily on manual and mechanical methods, which are labour-intensive and costly, particularly in the high-rainfall hill ecosystems of North Eastern India. A field experiment was conducted for three consecutive years (2015–2017) on a long-term organic field (under organic management since 2005–06) at mid-altitude (950 m ASL) in Meghalaya to evaluate non-chemical weed management options for maize productivity, weed dynamics and soil health. Eight treatments were tested in a randomised block design, including hand weeding, mechanical weeding, soil solarization, mulching, stale seedbed preparation and maize–soybean intercropping. Among all treatments, two hand weedings at 20 and 45 days after sowing (DAS) recorded the lowest weed population (155.3/m²) and dry weight (75.3 g/m²) at 30 DAS. However, intercropping of maize with soybean (2:1) combined with one hand weeding at 45 DAS (T6) and stale seedbed + 25% reduced spacing + mulching with crop residues + one hand weeding at 45 DAS (T5) achieved significantly higher weed control efficiency at 60 DAS, the lowest weed indices (1.2 and 4.9%, respectively) and maize grain yields statistically at par with the weed-free check. T6 recorded the highest net returns (₹49,560/ha) and benefit–cost ratio (2.42), outperforming all other treatments, including the weed-free check, primarily due to lower weeding costs and the added benefit of biological nitrogen fixation by soybean. After three cropping cycles, T6 also recorded the highest soil organic carbon (22.3 g/kg), available nitrogen (272.5 kg/ha) and phosphorus (29.6 kg P₂O₅/ha), indicating concurrent improvement in soil health. Soil solarization performed poorly under the prevailing sub-32°C temperature regime of the region. Maize+soybean intercropping (2:1) with one hand weeding at 45 DAS is recommended as a practically viable, economically superior and soil health-enhancing weed management strategy for organic maize production in the North Eastern Hill Region of India.
Thematic Synthesis of Indigenous Technical Knowledge Relevant To Hill And Mountain Ecosystems: The Shivaliks of North India As A Representative Case
Indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) comprises time-tested practices refined by farmers through continuous experimentation and innovation. Despite being ecofriendly, cost-effective, and readily accessible, ITK remains underutilized in modern conservation programs. This paper presents a thematic synthesis of ITK practices in the Shivalik region of North India, based on 30 years of field experience across 4.2 million hectares in five northern states. Data were compiled through interactions with farmers and village elders, group discussions, field observations, case studies, and validation by extension personnel. The study documents ITK-based practices for land development (field bunding, terracing, fertility maintenance), water resource management (Kuhl irrigation systems, village ponds, spring harvesting), drainage management (diversion ditches, bio-engineering), and indigenous flora management (agroforestry, grasslands, bio-fencing). Additional practices include organic mulching, the use of farmyard manure, and wildlife management strategies. The synthesis demonstrates that farmers function as practical engineers, integrating local flora and materials through simple, effective methods refined by critical analysis of past experiences. Integration of ITK with modern scientific knowledge is essential for sustainable, climate-resilient agricultural development in hill and mountain ecosystems. The findings provide a framework for incorporating ITK into watershed development programs and soil conservation policies.
Farmer Producer Organizations and Agricultural Sustainability in Uttarakhand's Hills: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of Conservation Practices and Economic Outcomes
Hill agriculture in Uttarakhand is bottlenecked with multiple overlapping challenges. Fragmented landholdings, weak market linkages, severe soil erosion and growing climate variability are some of the major ones. Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) have been promoted as an institutional response to these constraints. But, the link between FPO membership and improved outcomes in ecological and economic domains has not been studied systematically in mountain agriculture. To address this gap, we studied 300 farm households (150 FPO members, 150 non-members) across three districts in Uttarakhand's Garhwal region. It was a cross-sectional survey using multistage random sampling. Key outcomes measured were: (1) a composite Resource Conservation Index (RCI; range 0-5) constructed from ten soil and water management practices, (2) agricultural income per nali (local land unit ≈ 0.02 ha) and (3) price realization ratio. Data was analysed for group differences and OLS Regression models controlling for farmer age, education, landholding size, market distance and districtlevel variations. FPO members demonstrated substantially higher conservation adoption (mean RCI: 3.25 vs. 2.15; 51% difference; p < 0.001), agricultural income (₹4,850 vs. ₹3,520 per nali; 38% difference; p < 0.001) and price realization (0.88 vs. 0.75; 13% difference; p < 0.001) compared to non-members. These associations persisted after multivariate adjustment (RCI: β = 1.25, p < 0.001; Income: β = ₹1,156, p < 0.001). The study found meaningful associations between FPO membership and improved performance in natural resource management and farm income. Interestingly, marginal (<3 nali) and less educated farmers showed stronger associations. These findings reinforce the role of FPO model for hill agriculture particularly when targeting marginalized farmers. The mechanism underlying these associations – whether through training, credit access, market linkage or other pathways – remains topic of future studies.
Soil Carbon Fractions and Management Indexes in Dragon Fruit (Hylocereus spp.) Cultivation in the Western Himalaya
Soil organic carbon (SOC) fractions give key insights into soil quality, nutrient cycling, and carbon storage in agriculture and horticulture. However, little research has explored SOC fractionation and carbon dynamics in dragon fruit systems, especially regarding accession differences. This study assesses SOC fractions and carbon management indices among dragon fruit accessions in the northwestern Himalaya to establish a baseline for this emerging crop. Seven accessions—Pink Gujarat (PG), White Gujarat (WG), Yellow Gujarat (YG), Pink Bangalore (PB), White Bangalore (WB), Local Pink Pulp (LPP), and Local White Pulp (LWP)—along with open field conditions (OC) as reference, were evaluated three years after planting. SOC fractions were measured using standard protocols with the modified Walkley-Black method and different acid concentrations. Results showed significant accession-specific variation in SOC fractions (p<0.05). Accessions YG, WB, and PB had the highest very labile (3.65-3.84 mg g⁻¹), labile (2.68-2.83 mg g⁻¹), and active carbon pools (6.33-6.67 mg g⁻¹), with 46- 86% higher active pools than open field (3.58 mg g⁻¹). PG had the highest non-labile (6.08±0.36 mg g⁻¹) and passive pools (8.66±0.38 mg g⁻¹). CMI ranged from 134.93 to 212.34, with YG highest. Strong correlations between labile fractions and CMI (r=0.99) show labile pools drive management index variation. This is the first baseline of SOC fractions in northwestern Himalayan dragon fruit accessions, revealing profiles: YG, WB, PB with higher active carbon, and PG, LWP with more stable carbon. These reflect SOC status three years after planting and serve as references for future monitoring. Long-term studies are needed to see if differences impact sequestration rates and distinguish plant from soil effects. YG, WB, and PB are promising for carbon research.
Water Management Technologies in Ladakh’s Cold Arid Region: Climate Impacts and Adaptive Strategies - A Field Documentation Study
Ladakh, a high-altitude cold arid region in the trans-Himalayan zone, faces escalating water scarcity due to climate change, marked by glacial retreat, reduced snowfall, and warming trends. This field documentation study synthesizes traditional and modern water management technologies—zings, kuhls, artificial glaciers, ice stupas, and polyhouses—to address these challenges in Leh and surrounding areas. Drawing on field observations (2022-2024), statistical climate analysis (1901-2023), and community insights, it evaluates technology performance and socio-economic impacts. Statistical analysis using Mann-Kendall tests (τ=0.18-0.32, p < 0.05) confirms significant warming trends (0.02-0.21°C year-1), while precipitation shows pronounced decline (-7.9 mm/year, 1990-2020) with increased drought frequency (SPI <-1 every 5- 7 years). Field surveys demonstrate that traditional technologies (zings, kuhls) increase irrigation coverage by 20-30%, while modern innovations (artificial glaciers, ice stupas, polyhouses) extend growing seasons and boost yields by 20-40%. However, challenges include groundwater depletion (1-2 m annually), contamination (70% of aquifers), high technology costs (₹13.5-75 lakh), and tourism-driven demand surges (10-15% in 2023). Sustainable strategies, including wastewater recycling, kuhl lining, technology subsidies, and policy reforms like water pricing, are proposed to enhance resilience. Comparisons with global arid regions underscore Ladakh's unique community-driven approach. This synthesis advocates integrating traditional practices with modern innovations to ensure water security in Ladakh's fragile ecosystem.
Mapping Hill and Mountain Ecosystem in India: A Review and Framework for Ecological Production Units (EPUs)
Mountain and hill ecosystems (the Himalaya-Northwest hills and Northeast hills, Aravalli, Western Ghats, and Eastern Ghats) in India provide critical ecosystem services, including biodiversity conservation, water regulation, and livelihood support, yet their spatial heterogeneity is poorly captured by existing classification frameworks. This paper presents a narrative synthesis of global and Indian approaches to mapping mountain ecosystems and evaluates their suitability for land-use planning in complex upland regions. We review major frameworks, including biogeographic zones, agroecological regions, watershed divisions, WWF ecoregions, and global mountain classifications, highlighting their strengths and limitations in representing ecological and production variability. A key gap identified is the absence of an integrated, operational unit that combines ecological, climatic, and socio-economic dimensions for planning purposes. To address this, we propose a conceptual multi-criteria GIS-based framework for delineating Ecological Production Units (EPUs) in Indian hill regions. The framework integrates topography, climate, soils, land cover, and human factors to define homogeneous units of ecological productivity and management relevance. The study demonstrates that EPUs can serve as a bridge between ecological classification and decision-making, with applications in watershed management, agroforestry, conservation planning, and climate adaptation. However, implementation is constrained by data gaps, scale mismatches, and institutional fragmentation. The paper contributes a structured synthesis of classification systems and provides a conceptual pathway toward operationalizing spatially explicit, ecosystem-based planning in India's hill and mountain regions.
River Sand Mining and Groundwater Systems: Mechanisms, Impacts, and Pathways to Sustainable Management
Sand mining is a common practice that provides vital resources for economic development and infrastructure development, but it also has adverse effects on the environment and social activities worldwide. However, its unregulated practices pose significant threats to the groundwater system. This review examines the impact of river sand mining on groundwater recharge, quality, and availability. Excessive sand mining alters riverbed morphology, reducing infiltration capacity and lowering the water table in adjacent aquifers. The sand acts as a natural filter; removing it can degrade groundwater quality by causing turbid water and contamination from surface pollutants. The over-extraction of sand disrupts hydraulic connectivity between rivers and aquifers, exacerbating groundwater depletion and threatening water scarcity for agricultural, industrial, and domestic use. This review paper consolidates the findings of the impact of sand mining on groundwater recharge, storage capacity, and sustainable water management practices. Strategies to mitigate adverse effects, including implementing a regulatory framework, adopting sustainable mining practices, and using alternative materials such as M-sand, quarry stone dust, and crushed rock, were suggested. This review highlights the need to balance developmental demands with the preservation of groundwater resources to ensure longterm environmental sustainability.
Dry and Wet Spells Probabilities Analysis Using Markov Chain Model: A CaseStudy of Lamphelpat, Imphal (West), Manipur
In the present study ,weekly rainfall data of Lamphelpat, Imphal (West), Manipur for the year 2011-2024 were used to forecast dry and wet spells probabilities using Markov Chain Model and to find out the time of onset and termination of monsoon. The average annual rainfall was found to be 1522 mm, with the monsoon season contributing the highest proportion (68.60%), followed by pre-monsoon (25.93%) and post-monsoon (5.51%) rainfall. The coefficient of variation indicated relatively stable rainfall during the monsoon and pre-monsoon seasons, while the post-monsoon period exhibited high variability. The analysis revealed that dry weeks were predominant during the 1st to 15th and 41st to 52nd standard meteorological weeks, whereas wet weeks were more frequent during the monsoon period. The probability of consecutive dry and wet weeks highlighted critical periods of moisture stress and adequate water availability. Forward and backward accumulation analysis indicated that the effective onset of the pre-monsoon and monsoon occurred during the 17th and 24th weeks, respectively, with the monsoon extending up to the 40th week, providing an active rainy period of approximately 17 weeks. The study provides useful insights for optimizing sowing time, irrigation scheduling, and crop planning in the study area
Dry and wet spell probability, Markov chain model, Lamphelpat, Imphal (West), Manipur
Linking Visual Soil Erosion Indicators with FRN-¹³⁷Cs-Derived Soil Erosion Rates for Rapid Field-Based Soil Erosion Assessment in the Himalayan Region
Soil erosion assessment in the Himalayas is constrained by complex topography, intense rainfall, high spatial variability, and limited field accessibility, making conventional measurement approaches difficult to implement. Although erosion models are widely used, their reliability is often limited due to insufficient field validation. This study addresses this gap by integrating visual soil erosion indicators with Cesium-137 tracing-derived erosion rates to develop a practical, field-based assessment framework. A systematic field survey was conducted in which key erosion indicators, including sheet erosion, rills, pedestals, exposed roots, and surface coarse fragments, were recorded at sampling locations. Concurrently, soil samples were collected using a random sampling strategy for 137Cs analysis to quantify net soil erosion rates. Each sampling point was assigned a visually interpreted erosion class and compared with corresponding 137Cs-derived erosion magnitudes. Agreement between observed and measured classes was evaluated using the Kappa coefficient. The results showed a strong overall agreement (Kappa = 0.70), indicating the robustness of the approach. High classification accuracy (84-86%) was achieved for extreme classes (no erosion and severe erosion), while moderate classes showed comparatively lower agreement (66-69%), reflecting the difficulty in distinguishing intermediate erosion levels in the field. Soil quality parameters further supported these results, showing a consistent decline with increasing erosion severity. Forest and grassland areas exhibited higher soil organic carbon and better structural stability, whereas barren lands showed depleted organic matter, higher bulk density, and overall degraded soil conditions. The study establishes a validated visual indicator-erosion rate framework that enables rapid, low-cost, and instrument-free estimation of soil erosion severity in mountainous regions. This approach provides a practical tool for soil erosion assessment, field validation of erosion models and for training machine learning models, and supports decision-making by researchers, policymakers, and land managers in data-scarce and resource-constrained environments.
Women Empowerment Through Self Help Groups in Watershed Development Projects in Aravali hills of Rajasthan: An Analysis of Success, Failures and Sustainability
Women empowerment through promotion of Self Help Groups is a key strategic initiative for ensuring gender equality, inclusive growth, financial inclusion and socioeconomic development particularly of weaker sections of the society. This was one of the thrust areas of a corporate funded watershed development project which operated in 35 villages located in a highly vulnerable Aravali hills ecosystem of arid region of Rajasthan. The problem of poverty, illiteracy and drudgery of women highly marginalized in the social system of muslim dominated communities of the project area was defying solution. At the grass root level, the project was operated by an NGO Sir Syed Trust (SST) and technically supported by a professional team of watershed management experts. Efforts were made by the SST to organize the women from weaker section and landless families as Self Help Groups (SHG), provided exposure visits, trainings, and arranged bank loans to start income generating activities to support their large families. Monthly collections and inter loaning was started to begin with. Goat rearing was opted by large number of landless families as an income generating activity. These groups were federated at the block level to develop linkages with the banks for easy loans. However, the evaluation and impact assessment study conducted in 2024-25 on the present status and long term sustainability of 223 SHGs formed from 2006 to 2016 revealed a mix of success and failures. In a random sample of 93 SHGs from seven study villages, 45 SHGs became defunct over times mainly from the muslim community dominated villages, because of pressure to maintain Parda, male domination, illiteracy to maintain records and deal with banks, pressure of agriculture and livestock work, burden of caring/maintaining large size families which could not permit them to spare time for group activities. On the other hand, where non-muslim including SC and STfamilies was relatively more, the literacy rate was better, facility of easy bank loans was capitalized and the SHGs remained sustainable. In these 48 functional SHGs, regular collection of savings, inter-loaning and access to loans from federation continued. Many graduated from goat rearing to dairying, milk vending, and grocery shops in villages and remained sustainable on a trajectory of growth. This intervention of the project remained a mix of success and failures and reasons of both are deliberated in the paper for future policy guidelines.
Aravali hills, Women empowerment, Self- help groups, Income generation activities, Goat rearing
Assessing Community Participation and Ecosystem Services from Common Property Resources of Hot Arid Ecosystem of Western Rajasthan
Common property resources (CPRs) are vital natural assets, particularly for tribal and rural poor with limited landholdings, who depend heavily on CPRsfor livelihood, fuelwood and fodder needs. Most common CPRs in rural areas include common grazing lands, community forests, wastelands, and common water bodies. The CPRs in arid ecosystems provide not only fruits, vegetables, herbs, fibre, and even water for drinking and irrigation; but also income and employment opportunities. Considering their importance, these resources are jointly utilised and accessed by the community. The present study was undertaken in the Bikaner and Jaisalmer districts of western Rajasthan, India to assess the status of the CPRs, evaluate their impact on livelihoods and also to measure the extent of community participation in the management of these critical resources. A stratified random sampling was employed anddata were collected from 720 households via personal interviews using standardized schedules to quantify ecosystem services from water harvesting structures and pasture lands. Results revealed majority of farmers (45.6%) possessing low socio-economic status but maintaining favourable attitude (42.6%) toward CPRs. Overall extent of people’s participation in CPR management was measured at 60.3%, with the highest engagement occurring during the development stage. Key ecosystem services included provision of water for household and livestock, fuelwood, food materials and building materials, and increased cropping intensity. The study concludes that while CPRs are essential for subsistence, they are threatened by encroachment and invasive species. Establishing CPR management bodies and leveraging traditional "Oran" systems are essential to ensure sustainable regeneration and long-term livelihood security.
Assessment of effectiveness of extension methods for dissemination of soil and water conservation technologies
Study was initiated during 2004 with the objective to find out effective extension methods for dissemination of Soil and Water Conservation (SWC) technologies for watershed development. Frequency use and effectiveness indices along with structured schedules were developed to assess and evaluate different extension methods. The study revealed that majority of farmers were using radio and television more frequently for information on different agricultural and SWC technologies. The less frequently used extension methods by the farmers were bulletin and documentary film show, exhibition, study tour, result demonstration and method demonstration. It was also found that the most effective extension methods as perceived by farmers for dissemination of SWC technologies were farm and home visit in individual contact, discussion meeting and result demonstration in group contact and film show in mass contact. Whereas, according to officers of watershed development team and extension scientists the highly effective extension methods were farm and home visit in individual contact methods, result demonstration, study tour, lecture and discussion meeting in group contact methods and they considered none of extension method highly effective in mass contact methods. The study concludes that most effective extension methods as perceived by both, the farmers and officers were, farm and home visit in individual contact, result demonstration in group contact and bulletin as well as documentary film show in mass contact methods, for effective dissemination of SWCtechnologies for watershed management.
Copyright (c) 2014 Indian Journal of Soil Conservation
Geospatial assessment of erosional behaviour of a watershed inAngara block of Ranchi district, Jharkhand
Soil erosion assessment was carried out in Dumar Kocha watershed of Ranchi district in Jharkhand state to understand the erosional behavior geospatially using Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE). It was observed that average annual soil erosion for the watershed ranged from slight (<5 t ha yr ) to very severe (>80 t ha yr ). This was further observed that the watershed areas covered by slight, moderate, high, very high, severe and very severe erosion potential zones were 67, 12.42, 10.98, 3.82, 5.14 and 1.21% of the watershed, respectively. Spatial analysis using remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) indicated high soil erosion rates in central portion of the watershed, which could be attributed to the severe terrain modifications, inappropriate agricultural practices and forest degradations. Since the areas which are sensitive to soil loss could be demarcated, outcome of the study has the potential to serve as a valuable resource for better land management. Geoinformatics based analysis of erosion behavior in this region at watershed level can help manage natural resources better. Results thus obtained should further help in assessment of appropriate indicators to work upon for conserving water and soil through watershed management and land use planning.
Impact analysis of participatory integrated watershed management programme in semi-arid region ofTamil Nadu, India
Watershed management aimed to containing the deterioration of natural resources for maintaining the ecological balance and sustainable economic development. This paper presents the impacts of the participatory watershed development. The runoff varied from 27mmto 43.2 mm, which was 4.5 to 7.2% of the total rainfall. A total of 266 ha-cm additional surface water storage capacity was created through water resource development and increased wells recuperation rate by 10 to 15%. Influence zone of percolation ponds showed increased irrigated area from 13.7 ha to 25.1 ha (84%) with crop diversification. The average survival percent of fruit plants varied between 51 and 98.66%. The yield of dry land crops was increase by 11 to 14%. Cultivated Land Utilization Index (CLUI) increased by 0.13 (47 days) in dry land and by 0.04 (15 days) in irrigated condition. Overall Crop Productivity Index (CPI) increased from 0.547 to 0.613 with an increase of 12% in productivity level of crops. Overall Crop Fertilization Index (CFI) increased from 0.69 to 0.75, registering an increase of 8% in rate of nutrients application. The overall Watershed Productivity (WP) increased by 17.2% of horse gram. The overall People's Participation Index (PPI) was 62% indicating that the stake holders' overall participation was high. A total of 10105 mandays employment was generated due to various interventions.Average milk production has increased by 59 liters per family per year and consumption increased from 0.91 to 1.03 liters family day . –1 –1