Crop Productivity and Sustainable Agricultural Systems in Snow-Receiving Hazardous Himachal Mountains: A Review
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.53550/Keywords:
Crop productivity, Climate variability, Hazards, Himachal agriculture, Snow-receiving mountains, Soil erosionAbstract
The snow-receiving regions of Himachal Pradesh — Lahaul-Spiti, Kinnaur, upper Kullu and parts of Chamba, lying broadly above 2,000 m amsl — sustain agriculture under severe constraints: short growing seasons, snowmelt-dependent irrigation, fragmented holdings, steep erodible slopes and recurrent natural hazards. This paper reviews published literature, government statistical reports, and institutional assessments for the period 2000–2025 to assess crop types, productivity, investment cum developmental schemes, natural resources, hazards, and sustainability constraints having accessible intermittent and scattered evidence in the concerned and related regions. Reported snow season warming of about 1.2°C during 1982–2007 at Solang (2,500 m), nearly 50 percent reduction in seasonal snowfall, and earlier snowmelt have disrupted the kuhl-fed irrigation on which the region depends; only about 12 percent of Kullu's net sown area is irrigated. Yields remain well below national and international benchmarks — wheat about 1.85 t ha−1 (State average, 2023), barley 1.5–2 t ha−1, seed potato 20–30 t ha−1 — while apple productivity has been declining at about 0.183 t ha−1 per year. Public investment is substantial and rising, yet reported scheme progress for 2010–2015 shows near-uniform annual increments that warrant independent verification, and no published study relates investment to measured productivity gain in snow-receiving tracts. The review concludes that drought-resistant cum cold-tolerant and high-value crops, micro-irrigation and kuhl restoration, soil, snow and water conservation, afforestation and hazard-sensitive planning together offer a workable adaptation pathway, but that altitude-stratified monitoring, controlled crop trials and independent scheme evaluation are prerequisites for sound policy. Limitations of the underlying data are stated explicitly throughout.
References
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Variation in net primary productivity and biomass of forests in the high mountains of central Himalaya. J. Indian J. Soil Cons. 2026; 54(2): 197-213 211Anand Verdhan Remote sensing, notably MODIS snow cover data, combined with suitable hydrological models can be used to estimate snowmelt flow and its timing for irrigation planning (Aparna and Shahnawaz, 2022). The need is pressing: a weekly-average temperature increase of 1.2°C over 1985–2009, the 1990s being the warmest decade, has accelerated snowmelt, disturbed irrigation schedules and dried springs; snowfall fell by 14.05% between 2021-22 and 2022-23; and the 845 glaciers of Lahaul and Spiti, some covering 100 km², are retreating at 1–2% a year, reducing flow to snowmelt-fed kuhls and raising the risk of crop failure (Sherpa, 2024). Farmers are meanwhile shifting from barley to water-intensive but more remunerative crops such as pea and cauliflower, increasing demand as supply contracts (Shashni & Sharma, 2022) — part of a longer decline in district wise crop diversification found by Mohan et al. (2025) between 1972-75 and 2012-15, as food grains gave way to fewer superior cereals and to more remunerative fruit and vegetables. Indigenous water conservation systems merit modernisation rather than replacement (Sharma & Kanwar, 2009); micro-irrigation and kuhl restoration cost ₹10,000–₹50,000/ha and are affordable at an 85% subsidy, though private investment remains limited by an average holding of 0.59 ha. Crop monitoring technology is well established elsewhere but barely applied here. Becker-Reshef et al., (2023) showed that crop calendars and crop-type maps allow crop-specific signals to be extracted from satellite data through the growing season, so that development can be tracked and yields forecast before harvest; the GEOGLAM and AMIS initiatives, launched by the G20 agriculture ministers after the food price crises of 2007/08 and 2013, provide a globally harmonised dataset for monthly crop condition assessment of wheat, maize, rice and soybean, but the Indian component has yet to be updated and monitored for Himachal Pradesh. At field scale, Nashir (2024) integrated IoT sensors and wireless networks for real-time monitoring of crop health, soil condition and environment in support of online agricultural markets, with an F1-score of 0.83, and Padhiary et al., (2025) reported 85% accuracy for GIS in handling geographical data, 92% detection accuracy for remote sensing of crop and environmental condition, and a 40% reduction in workforce cost from all-terrain vehicles and automated systems using machine learning, the internet of things, targeted sensors and drones — gains that depend on collaboration, investment and training. Securing a reliable price remains the harder problem. Remoteness impedes marketing, a constraint that warehousing, safe road connectivity and institutional support would substantially reduce; improved roads, cold storage to cut post-harvest losses and farmer-friendly institutions are therefore priorities (Sharma, 2011; Sati, 2005). Farmers should be engaged in identifying adaptation measures so that solutions are culturally appropriate and 3.3 Emerging Technologies and Market Access| supported by agro-advisory services that provide reliable weather forecasts and pest alerts (Rana et al., 2021), alongside bio-pesticides and traditional pest control (Pinto, 2018). Energy demand in this cold climate is far higher than in the plains, yet above 3,000 m, forest cover is negligible, and icing and overcast snowy days limit hydro and solar generation, respectively. Development projects undertaken under such conditions require time-and-work studies, current technology, and realistic monitoring if they are to be hazard-free, sustainable, and of benefit to local people, culture, environment, and ecology. Agriculture in the snow-receiving Himachal mountains requires an approach tailored to the terrain, balancing economic viability against environmental sustainability. Cold-tolerant crops — barley, wheat, potato and the pseudo- cereals — alongside high-value saffron, heeng and apple, are best suited. Practices used in comparable conditions in Canada, the United States and Russia can be assessed alongside traditional knowledge to raise productivity and resilience. An inventory and assessment of the resources of the State's alpine zone, nearly 36.84% above the tree line, is needed to frame strategies and research for extending land use, selecting type of vegetation that zone can support. Agricultural investment in snow-receiving regions flows through government schemes for erosion control, rainwater harvesting, polyhouses, and natural farming, but the reported annual rate of progress is nearly constant at the State level, casting doubt on the figures. Productivity is -1 -1 moderate: wheat 1.85 t ha , vegetables 20–25 t ha , seed -1 -1 potato 20–30 t ha , and apple 8–12 t ha in the better orchard -1 belts against a State average of about 5.6 t ha , all constrained by climate and soil. Returns are highest for -1 -1 saffron (₹5–10 lakh ha ), seed potato (₹1–2 lakh ha ), apple -1 -1 (₹2–4 lakh ha ) and vegetables (₹50,000–₹1 lakh ha ) over the periods covered by the sources cited, but profitability is falling under rising costs and market inefficiency. The average yield of the major crops, barely, mustard, wheat, pulse and potato in Lahaul-Spiti is 1.27, 1.25, 1.49, 3.15 and 22 t/ha, respectively. Hazards, climate variability, water scarcity and market access must be addressed together, through policy support, research and infrastructure development. Infrastructural development has facilitated mobility but earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, floods and cloudbursts have been aggravated by local climate variability, deforestation and hurriedly unchecked construction which resulted in losses and socio-economic-cultural disruption. The response required combines immediate relief with science- and technology-based development policy that conserves snow, soil, water, and forests, and strengthens markets, minimum support prices, transport, tradition, tourism, and the environment, to the benefit of farmers and consumers alike. The State possesses the resources for a thriving tourism sector — geographical and cultural diversi- 4 CONCLUSIONS| Indian J. Soil Cons. 2026; 54(2): 197-213210 Anand Verdhan ty, and a clean and peaceful environment. The Gyspa dam, with a storage capacity of 0.65 MAF, is designed to supply water and generate power and could raise crop yields in its command by 20–30%, but local opposition, in the absence of credible assurances on sustainability and rehabilitation, has left its future uncertain. The data used here come from the Directorate of Economics and Statistics, other Himachal Pradesh government reports and published research, and are notably short of current, dynamic information for the snow- receiving higher altitudes. The region's traditions of straightforward dealing, local cooperation and the hard work of its women are its principal strength; village institutions, working with government, will be decisive in realizing its potential and conserving a fragile Himalayan ecosystem. District and tehsil offices should observe, compile and analyse local hydro-meteorological data for planning, and share it with villagers. Growers need better advice on suitable varieties of vegetables, flowers, and fruits. Further, multidisciplinary study is needed of micro-irrigation designed to keep pipes free from icing, snow-ice melt harvesting, hazard mitigation, sheep and cattle management, climate-resilient quick-maturing crops, GIS- based erosion modelling and afforestation, and of ecotourism, if a sustainable water supply, crop productivity and economic resilience are to be secured. The author is thankful to the Chief Editor, the editorial board and the publication team of the Indian Journal of Soil Conservation for a series of critical reviews and valuable suggestions, and to the Secretary, IASWC, Dehradun, for permitting an extension of time. Figures 2, 3 and 4 are reproduced from Verdhen et al., (2011); Figure 5 is after Rao et al., (1987) and Verdhen (2022); Figure 6 is after NIH (1987) and Verdhen (1991). Written permission / no-objection from the respective copyright holders have been obtained by the author and are available with the Editorial Office. The author declares no conflict of interest. This review received no specific grant from any funding agency. Data can be made available on request. Review, analysis, manuscript preparation, and revisions were carried out by the author. The handling editor, Chief ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS FIGURE PERMISSIONS CONFLICT OF INTEREST FUNDING AUTHOR’S CONTRIBUTION DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT REFERENCES Editor, editorial team of IJSC, and IASWC Secretary also made substantial contributions to editing the manuscript and refining its language and expression to meet the required quality standards. Adhikari, B.S., and Rawat, G.S. 2012. Glimpses of forestry research in the Indian Himalayan region. Chapt. 4:41-53. Edited by: G.C.S. Negi & P.P. Dhyani Published by: G.B. 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